DEVICE   FOR    ILLUMINATING   THRESHOLDS 

AS    ELEVATOR   APPROACHES    EACH   FLOOR 

AT       THE       NATIONAL       CASH       REGISTER 

COMPANY 


MOVABLE      SCREEN     TO     PROTECT     OTHER 

WORKMEN  AND  PASSERS-BY  FROM  FLYING 

CHIPS  OF  METAL.     ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRI- 

CITAETS    GESELLSCHAFT 


HOODED    CAPS   AND   EXHAUSTS   FOR    PRE- 
VENTING      WORKERS       FROM       INHALING 
DUST.      FRIED.    BEYER,    LEVERKUSEN 


GUARDS    OVER    BELTS    IN    LAUNDRY.      NA- 
TIONAL   CASH    REGISTER   COMPANY 


SAFETY 


METHODS      FOR      PREVENTING 

OCCUPATIONAL    AND     OTHER 

ACCIDENTS  AND  DISEASE 

BY 

WILLIAM  H.  TOLMAN,  PH.D. 

DIKECTOK  OF 
THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  SAFETY 

AND 

LEONARD  B.  KENDALL 


ILLUSTRATED 


HARPER  &  BROTHERS  PUBLISHERS 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

MCMXIII 


PRINTED    IN    THE    UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERIC 
PUBLISHED   JUNE,    1913 


E-N 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION  ix 


Part  I 
GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

CHAP. 

I.  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  SAFETY 3 

II.  NEGLECTED  FACTORS 24 

III.  THE  WORKING-PLACE 35 

Part  II 
DANGER  ZONES 

IV.  YARDS,  WALKS,  RAILINGS,  AND  HOISTS 53 

V.  CUTTING  AND  GRINDING  TOOLS 65 

VI.  ILLUMINATION    . 79 

f     VII.       FIRE 101 

VIII.  TRANSPORTATION 122 

IX.  SAFETY  COMMITTEES 128 

X.  IRON  AND  STEEL 144 

XL        MINES  AND  MINING 167 

-"      XII.      ELECTRICITY 178 

XIII.  GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY 191 

XIV.  ORGANIZED  EFFORT  BY  EMPLOYERS 210 

Part  III 
INDUSTRIAL  HYGIENE 

XV.  COMMITTEES  ON  SANITATION 235 

XVI.  INDUSTRIAL  POISONS 245 

XVII.  CHEMICAL  INDUSTRIES 266 

XVIII.  SHOP  SANITATION 274 


263677 


iv  CONTENTS 


Part  IV 
SOCIAL  WELFARE 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XIX.  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 291 

XX.  MEETING  THE  PUBLIC 319 

XXI.  TRAINING  FUTURE  WORKERS 341 

XXII.  SOMETHING  MORE  THAN  WAGES 362 

XXIII.  AFTER  HOURS 384 

XXIV.  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  SAFETY 395 

INDEX 409 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

DEVICE  FOR  ILLUMINATING  THRESHOLDS  AS  ELEVATOR  AP- 
PROACHES EACH  FLOOR  AT  THE  NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER 
COMPANY Frontispiece 

MOVABLE  SCREEN  TO  PROTECT  OTHER  WORKMEN  AND  PASSERS-BY 
FROM  FLYING  CHIPS  OF  METAL.  ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRI- 
CITAETS  GESELLSCHAFT 

HOODED  CAPS  AND  EXHAUSTS  FOR  PREVENTING  WORKERS  FROM 

INHALING  DUST.  FRIED.  BEYER,  LEVERKUSEN  ....  " 

GUARDS  OVER  BELTS  IN  LAUNDRY.  NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER 

COMPANY  " 

GEARS  ON  SMALL  PUNCH-PRESSES  WELL  GUARDED  AT  THE  NA- 
TIONAL CASH  REGISTER  COMPANY  Facing  p.  12 

INDIVIDUAL  EXHAUSTS  FOR  POWDERY  SUBSTANCES  AT  THE  SIE- 
MENS-SCHUCKERT  WORKS "  12 

SPECIMEN   OF   SANDSTONE  FROM   WORKMAN'S   GOGGLES      .     .  "        1 8 

MAGNIFIED  SPECIMEN  OF  SANDSTONE "        1 8 

TRAVELING  EXHIBIT  OF  THE  GERMAN  WOODWORKERS*  UNION 

SHOWING  OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES  DUE  TO  DUSTS  .  .  "  l8 

SAFEGUARDED  DRILL-PRESS  IN  ONE  OF  THE  OLIVER  IRON  MINING 

COMPANY'S  SHOPS "  30 

THE  NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER  COMPANY  CONSERVES  THE  HEALTH 

OF  ITS  WORKERS "  3O 

TYPES  OF  GUARD  FOR  BAND  AND  SWING  SAWS "        74 

SAFETY  COLLAR,  METAL  GUARDS,  PLATE-GLASS  EYE-SHIELD, 
AND  INCLOSED  BELTING  FOR  THE  OLIVER  IRON  MINING 

COMPANY'S  GRINDING- WHEELS "  76 

INCLOSED  BELTING  AND  SAFEGUARDED  BUZZ  PLANER  ...  "  76 

NO  DIRECT  LIGHT  IN  EYES;  LIGHT  CONCENTRATED  WHERE  NEEDED  "  86 
MORE  LIGHT  IN  EYES  THAN  ON  WORK.  POOR  DIFFUSION.  WRONG 

LOCATION  OF  LAMP  M  86 


vi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

THE    EDISON    PORTABLE    SAFETY   LAMP   FOR   MINERS      ....  Facing  p.  92 

THE   EDISON   SAFETY   LAMP   FOR   MINERS "  92 

A   NEW   YORK   EDISON   EMERGENCY   KIT "  92 

SAFETY   DEVICES   FOR  THE   ELECTRICAL   WORKERS "  92 

FIRE    BRIGADE    AND    MOTOR    FIRE     TRUCK    AT    THE    PLANT    OF 

FRIEDRICK   BEYER,   LEVERKUSEN "  IO2 

THE   NATIONAL   CASH   REGISTER  COMPANY'S   FIRE   BRIGADE    .      .  "  IO2 

MUTUALITY   AT  THE   BROOKLYN   RAPID   TRANSIT   COMPANY      .      .  "  124 

SAFEGUARDED   MULTIPLE   DRILL-PRESS "  128 

SAFEGUARDED   GEARS   ON   JIB   CRANE "  128 

GEAR   COVERS   ON   JIB   CRANE   REMOVED "  128 

BLAST-FURNACE    EQUIPPED    WITH    "BAER"    SAFETY    EXPLOSION 

VALVES,    RAILED    STAIRWAYS    AND    PLATFORMS       ....  "  146 

SAFETY  LOCKING   DEVICE   FOR   GAS- VALVES   IN   BOILER-HOUSE    .  "  146 
COVER-GUARDS    AND    DANGER-SIGN    ON   FLY-WHEEL    AND    GEARS 

OF   DOUBLE   ANGLE   SHEARS "  150 

COVER-GUARDS    FOR    32"    LATHE.      NATIONAL    TUBE    COMPANY  "  150 
TYPES    OF   FLY-WHEEL    GUARDS   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES    STEEL 

CORPORATION "  158 

THREE    VIEWS    IN    THE    ALLGEMEINE    ELEKTRICITAETS    GESELL- 

SCHAFT,    BERLIN         "  164 

RESCUE   DRILL    AT   THE   MINES   OF   THE   H.  C.  FRICK   COKE   COM- 
PANY        "  168 

RESCUE  CORPS  WITH  DRAEGER  HELMETS  AND  THE  PULMOTOR  "  l68 

PLATFORM  FOR  LARRY  OPERATOR "  172 

MINE-CAR  AMBULANCE "  172 

OLD  METHOD  OF  UNCOUPLING  LOADED  CARS  AT  SHAFT  BOTTOM  "  172 

SAFETY  DEVICE  FOR  UNCOUPLING  CARS  AT  SHAFT  BOTTOM     .  "  172 
WHEN  HOISTING  MEN  FROM  THE  SHAFTS,"  THE  OLIVER  MINING 

COMPANY  STATION  TWO  MEN  IN  CHARGE "  176 

LEVEL  CONCRETE  PLATFORM  AND  SAFETY  GATES  AT  THE  OLIVER 

MINING  COMPANY'S  SHAFT "  176 

GUARDS  OVER  ELECTRIC  APPARATUS  IN  GENERATOR-ROOM     .  "  178 

SCREENS  AND  RAILINGS  AROUND  DYNAMO  AND  SWITCHBOARD  "  178 
AN  OLD-TYPE  FACTORY — POOR  LIGHTING,  NO  SAFEGUARDS  FOR 

MACHINES  OR  CONSIDERATION  FOR  THE  HEALTH  OF  WORKERS  ' '  22O 
ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRICITAETS  GESELLSCHAFT  AT   BERLIN,  DE- 
SIGNED BY  PROFESSOR  BEHREND,  ONE  OF  GERMANY'S  FORE- 
MOST  ARCHITECTS "  22O 

ft 


ILLUSTRATIONS  vii 

SANITARY   AND   WELL-ARRANGED   GENERAL    STORE    IN    A    MINING 

TOWN.       UNITED    STATES    STEEL   CORPORATION Facing  p.  2^2 

WORKMEN'S  DWELLINGS  IN  ONE  OF  THE  TOWNS  OF  THE  OLIVER 

MINING  COMPANY 242 

INDIVIDUAL  RESPIRATORS  AND  CHECKROOM  AT  THE  NATIONAL 

LEAD  COMPANY'S  PLANT 250 

INDIVIDUAL  LOCKERS  AND  BASINS  IN  ONE  OF  THE  NATIONAL 

LEAD  COMPANY'S  WASHROOMS 250 

DUSTLESS  HANDLING  OF  WHITE  LEAD  BY  THE  NATIONAL  LEAD 

COMPANY 268 

ONE  OF  THE  LUNCH-ROOMS  WHICH  THE  NATIONAL  LEAD  COMPANY 

PROVIDES    FOR   ITS    EMPLOYEES 272 

OUTFIT  FURNISHED  BY  THE  ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRICITAETS  GESELL- 

SCHAFT  FOR  ENCOURAGING  PERSONAL  CLEANLINESS  ON  THE 

PART  OF  WORKERS  IN  POISONOUS  SUBSTANCES  ....  272 

AUTOMATIC  ACID-DIPPING  PROCESS  IN  USE  AT  THE  ALLGEMEINE 
ELEKTRICITAETS  GESELLSCHAFT.  NO  INHALATION  OF  FUMES 
OR  CONTACT  WITH  THE  ACID 276 

ONE  WEEK'S  ACCUMULATION  OF  DUST  WHICH  DID  NOT  GO  INTO 
THE  LUNGS  OF  WORKERS  AT  THE  NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER 

COMPANY "  276 

CONVENIENT  DISINFECTING  APPARATUS  FOR  USE  IN  MILLS  AND 

SHOPS "  280 

ONE  OF  THE  SANITARY  DRINKING-FOUNTAINS  IN  THE  NATIONAL 

CASH  REGISTER  FACTORY "  280 

OLD-STYLE  INSTALLATION;  WIRING  AND  CUT-OUTS  EXPOSED  AND 

MOUNTED  ON  A  WOODEN  PARTITION "      314 

SEALED  CUT-OUT;  FUSES  AND  WIRES  INCASED  IN  PORCELAIN 

OR  METAL "  314 

SAFETY  DEVICES  FOR  CONTACT  WITH  LIVE   METAL  CONDUCTORS  "  314 
THE   NEW  YORK   EDISON   COMPANY'S   GUARDS   FOR   MANHOLE   IN 

A   CITY    STREET "  338 

UNSIGHTLY   AND   DANGEROUS    STREET   OBSTRUCTIONS     .      .      .      .  "  338 

A   FOREST   SCHOpL   FOR   WEAKLY   GERMAN   CHILDREN    ....  "  350 

MUNICH    MUSEUM    OF   SAFETY "  350 

A  VIEW  IN  PORT  SUNLIGHT,  CHESHIRE,  AN  INDUSTRIAL  COMMON- 
WEALTH    "  370 

PLAYGROUNDS    FOR    THE    NEXT    GENERATION    OF    WORKERS    AT 

KRUPP'S,  ESSEN "  370 


viii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  WORKMAN'S  GARDEN Facing  p.  388 

PLAYGROUND  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  FACTORY  EMPLOYEES.  NA- 
TIONAL TUBE  COMPANY  ..,,,.......  "  388 

ONE  OF  THE  EXPOSITION-ROOMS  AT  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF 

SAFETY ,  .  , , "  400 

THE  NORTON  COMPANY'S  EXHIBIT  AT  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM 

OF  SAFETY „  , "  400 

DIAGRAMS 

PAGE 

CHART  SHOWING  STATEMENT  OF  ACCIDENTS  AND  RELIEF 7 

DANGER   IN   THE   UNGUARDED   OPENING 9 

METAL   GUARD   FOR  CUTTER;     EXHAUST   FOR   GRINDING  DUST      ...  15 

GOOD  AND   BAD  WORKING  CONDITIONS  IN  MOLDING  SHOPS      ....  21 

A   REMINDER   FOR   PERSONAL    SAFETY 37 

SIDE-RAILS   AND   STEPS   FOR   THE    SWITCHING   ENGINE 38 

A  SAFETY  DEVICE  FOR  THE  FROG  OF  THE  SWITCH 39 

THROWING  THE  SWITCH  PARALLEL  TO  THE  TRACK,  A  SAFEGUARD     .      .  40 

PIPE    PERMITS    STEAM    TO    ESCAPE    WITHOUT    OBSCURING    THE    VISION  4! 

SAFE   METHOD   OF   STACKING   METAL    BARS 43 

GUARD   FOR   LOCKING    STEAM    VALVE    OF    BOILER 45 

SAFETY   CLAW   FOR   WRECKERS ,      .      ...  48 

SAFETY  COVER   WITH   SIDE   BARS   FOR   MANHOLES 54 

RAILED   PLATFORM   AND   TOE-GUARDS 55 

RAILED    WALK   FOR   ARC   LAMP   TRIMMERS 57 

TRACK  TARGET         59 

TOE-GUARD   FOR   FLAT   CARS 60 

FENDER  FOR   GANTRY  CRANE 62 

CRANE   HOOK   WITH    SAFETY   RIM 63 

SAFEGUARD  FOR  LATHE   CHUCK 70 

OLD-STYLE  SQUARE  AND  SAFETY  CIRCULAR  CUTTER-HEAD 73 

SAFEGUARDED   EMERY   WHEEL 77 

ANNUAL   DEATHS   FROM    INDUSTRIAL    ACCIDENTS 80 

MANHOLE   CARELESSLY   LEFT   UNGUARDED         131 

STEEL   SHELTER-HOUSES  FOR  PROTECTION   OF   MEN  DURING   BLASTING  171 

SAFETY   DRAG  FOR   MINE-CARS 174 

SUITABLE   CLOTHING   FOR   WOMAN   OPERATOR 196 

SAFETY   HOOK   FOR   HOISTS 198 

DANGER   OF   LOOSE    BOARDS   WITH   PROJECTING   NAILS         2O6 

AN  INEXPENSIVE  BUT  SERVICEABLE  TYPE  OF  FACTORY  STRETCHER    .      .  286 

A  "SAFETY"  WAGON,  A  FAMILIAR  SIGHT  TO  CHILDREN  OF  BROOKLYN    .  360 


INTRODUCTION 

THIS  book  is  the  only  comprehensive  work  on  safety 
that  has  yet  appeared  in  the  English  language.  It 
is  a  handbook  of  practical  information  for  every  one  in- 
terested in  industry.  It  shows  how  big  business  can  be 
good  business,  in  surrounding  the  workers  with  the  ade- 
quate safeguards  to  protect  them  at  work  and  in  promot- 
ing the  essentials  of  shop  hygiene. '  Two  sentences  from 
President  Wilson's  inaugural  address  might  be  applied 
here: 

"Society  must  see  to  it  that  it  does  not  itself  crush  or 
weaken  or  damage  its  own  constituent  parts.  The  first 
duty  of  law  is  to  keep  sound  the  society  it  serves." 

The  author  has  illustrated  the  underlying  principles 
of  the  world  movement  for  safety  and  industrial  hygiene 
by  means  of  typical  examples,  showing  the  methods 
through  which  simple  and  practical  safeguards  are  being 
applied  to  further  these  ends.  This  application  has 
resulted  in  lowered  costs  and  increased  production,  with 
cumulative  tendency  toward  greater  knowledge,  caution, 
and  self-control  on  the  part  of  the  workers. 

While  the  subject  of  accident  prevention  and  shop 
hygiene  has  been  treated  in  a  broad  way,  the  treatment 
has  necessarily  been  limited  to  include  only  those  features 
common  to  the  generality. 

This  book  proves  the  author's  contention  that  50  per 
cent,  of  industrial  accidents  are  preventable,  by  examples 


x  INTRODUCTION 

taken  from  many  sources,  among  others  the  prevention 
work  in  the  shops  and  plants  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road Company,  the  Midvale  Steel  Works,  and  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  where  the  reduction  of  serious 
shop  accidents  last  year  was  63  per  cent.,  61  per  cent.,  and 
45  per  cent,  respectively. 

From  official  connection  with  the  great  International 
Expositions  of  the  last  decade;  as  delegate  from  the 
United  States  Government  to  the  International  Congresses 
of  Housing,  Hygiene,  and  Demography,  Workmen's  In- 
surance and  Accident  Prevention  at  Paris,  Berlin,  Rome, 
London,  Vienna,  and  Milan;  as  corresponding  member 
of  the  Imperial  Technological  Museum  of  Vienna  and 
the  Illuminating  Society  of  London;  as  secretary  of  the 
American  Section  of  the  International  Committee  for 
Improved  Dwellings,  and  Chairman  of  the  American 
Section  of  the  International  Committee  of  Workmen's 
Insurance,  the  author  has  had  unusual  opportunities  for 
studying  these  problems  at  original  sources  here  and 
abroad.  "Every  life  saved  is  a  national  asset"  is  the 
philosophy  of  the  wise  men  in  Europe.  What  they  save 
America  often  destroys.  The  sanctity  of  life  is  a  lesson 
industrial  America  must  learn. 

All  unnecessary  social  waste  is  one  fundamental  cause 
for  the  increased  cost  of  living,  since,  in  addition  to  loss 
of  services,  it  imposes  an  additional  burden  on  the  tax- 
payer in  the  increased  expenditures  of  our  great  city  de- 
partments of  health,  charity,  education,  and  police. 
To-day,  through  our  lack  of  foresight  an  army  of  pro- 
ducers are  thrown  into  the  ranks  of  another  great  army 
of  consumers,  and  through  their  disablement  and  wage- 
earning  incapacity,  are  diverting  money  which  ought  to 
go  to  dividends,  profit,  increased  wages  and  salaries,  into 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

rivers  of  expenditure  for  these  social  and  industrial  de- 
pendents and  defectives.  Conservation  of  human  life 
means  a  credit  balance  on  the  ledger  of  social  efficiency. 

Dusty  trades,  industrial  poisons,  and  occupational 
diseases  run  the  cost  of  needless  deaths  and  disablement 
well  up  into  nine  figures.  This  socio-economic  waste 
can  be  cut  in  two. 

The  author  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  best  shops 
and  plants  in  all  sections  of  our  own  country,  having 
studied  actual  conditions  in  every  industrial  state  in 
the  Union. 

In  acknowledging  indebtedness  it  is  important  to  men- 
tion that  opportunities  for  utilizing  the  collections  and 
archives  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  and  the 
kind  co-operation  of  its  president  and  heads  of  depart- 
ments greatly  facilitated  the  work. 

In  covering  the  general  subject  of  industrial  hygiene  the 
suggestions  and  notes  of  Professor  Rambousek,  of  Prague, 
were  of  great  assistance.  Acknowledgment  is  made  to 
Director  Hirschberg  of  the  Allgemeine  Elektricitaets 
Gesellschaft,  Berlin,  for  facts  and  illustrative  material. 
Dr.  Charles  A.  Doremus  and  Mr.  L.  B.  Marks  very  kind- 
ly gave  the  benefit  of  their  revision  of  the  chapters  on 
Chemical  Industries  and  Illumination  respectively.  In 
the  section  devoted  to  the  theory  and  practice  of  fire 
prevention  acknowledgment  is  made  to  R.  H.  Newbern, 
superintendent  Insurance  Department  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  Company,  for  permission  to  use  his  valu- 
able papers,  "Private  Fire  Brigades"  and  "Private  Fire 
Departments  and  Fire  Drills,"  dealing  so  exhaustively 
with  these  subjects. 

The  author  is  particularly  indebted  to  C.  L.  Close, 
manager  of  the  Safety,  Relief,  Sanitation,  and  Welfare 


xii  INTRODUCTION 

Bureau  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  for  his 
most  generous  co-operation  in  placing  the  latest  technical 
and  photographic  material,  together  with  statistical  in- 
formation contained  in  the  archives  of  his  department, 
at  my  disposal. 

I  wish  also  to  thank  Miss  Adelaide  Wood  Guthrie  for 
her  valuable  aid  in  the  preparation  of  this  book  and  in 
seeing  it  through  the  press. 

It  is  believed  that  men  of  affairs,  business  managers, 
officers,  the  upper  employees,  students  who  are  entering 
upon  industrial  careers,  and  that  portion  of  the  public 
which  is  interested  in  the  industrial  issues  of  the  day,  in 
social  welfare,  and  in  broad  humanitarian  considerations 
will  find  a  distinctive  value  in  the  first  general  exposition 
which  has  been  made  in  the  English  language  of  the  vital 
subject  of  safety. 


PART    I. 
GENERAL    CONDITIONS 


SAFETY 


THE    PHILOSOPHY   OF    SAFETY 

IT  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  engineering  profession 
that  one -half  the  accidents  in  the  United  States  are 
preventable,  and  that  a  conservative  estimate  of  the 
annual  number  of  accidents  which  result  fatally  or  in 
partial  or  total  incapacity  on  the  part  of  the  worker 
may  be  placed  at  500,000.  Reckoning  the  wage-earning 
capacity  of  the  average  workman  at  $500  per  annum, 
we  have  to  consider  a  social  and  economic  loss  of  $250,000,- 
ooo  a  year.  And  these  figures,  of  course,  take  no  account 
of  the  many  high-salaried  professional  men  and  industrial- 
ists killed  every  year  in  mining,  building,  transportation, 
and  other  fields  of  industry. 

The  suffering  involved  for  these  injured  and  the  sorrow 
and  hardship  inflicted  upon  the  families  of  the  injured 
or  killed  are  obviously  not  to  be  estimated  in  concrete 
terms.  The  humanitarian  considerations  involved  natu- 
rally appeal  first  to  every  sympathetic  mind.  If  they  are 
not  dwelt  upon  at  length  in  this  book  it  is  because  its 
function  is  like  that  of  the  physician  or  surgeon,  to  prevent 
or  to  relieve  suffering  as  immediately  as  possible  rather 
than  to  give  time  to  considerations  which  are  based  on 
sentiment. 
2 


4  SAFETY 

Every  year  we  spend  enormous  sums  "conserving  the 
national  resources."  We  are  taking  care  of  our  trees; 
we  are  taking  care  of  our  game;  we  are  taking  care  of  our 
fish;  but  also  every  year  we  lose  many  times  over  what 
we  conserve  in  this  way,  simply  because  an  army  of  wage- 
earners  are  allowed  to  become  a  charge  on  charity  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  we  do  not  seem  to  consider  it  worth 
while  to  take  care  of  the  very  foundation  of  the  nation — 
the  working-man  and  his  family. 

t  '  World- wide  we  are  known  as  a  nation  of  wasters.  Our 
fires  cost  us  more;  our  coal,  lumber,  and  oil  waste  is  more 
reckless  than  that  of  any  other  country  on  the  face  of  the 
globe.  But  in  this  last  and  most  vital  question  of  all — the 
wasted  lives  of  our  people — we  have  been  making  our- 
selves ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  powers. 

As  a  contrast  we  may  turn  to  the  statement  of  Dr. 
Zacher,  director  of  the  German  Imperial  Bureau  of 
Statistics. 

One  billion  marks  in  wage-earning  efficiency  annually  we  conserve 
for  Germany  through  our  sanatoria,  museums  of  safety,  convales- 
cent homes,  and  other  forms  of  social  insurance,  by  which  we  safe- 
guard the  lives  and  limbs  of  our  workmen  and  prevent  the  causes 
and  effects  of  diseases  which  would  lessen  their  economic  efficiency. 

Evidence  certainly  shows  that  it  would  pay  us  to  adopt 
those  safeguards,  which,  for  instance,  allow  Germany  to 
conserve  annually  almost  exactly  what  we  throw  away. 

From  an  economic  standpoint  the  matter  of  taking  care 
of  the  thousands  of  negligence  cases  which  come  to  our 
courts  every  year  for  adjustment  provides  food  for 
thought. 

The  late  presiding  justice  of  the  Appellate  Division 
in  the  First  Department,  -Van  Brunt,  about  ten  years 
ago,  stated  that  two -thirds  of  the  time  of  the  courts 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY  5 

was  taken  up  in  the  consideration  of  negligence  cases. 
To-day  that  percentage  has  certainly  increased,  because 
the  laws  have  made  it  much  easier  for  injured  workmen 
to  recover  against  their  employers.  Also  the  bar  at 
large,  especially  throughout  the  state  outside  of  New 
York,  are  more  inclined  to  bring  suits  for  negligence, 
while  there  are  many  specialists  actively  engaged  in  this 
line  of  litigation. 

The  annual  cost  to  the  taxpayers  of  New  York  City 
alone  to-day  is  several  million  dollars.  An  immense  sum 
every  year  the  city  of  New  York  must  charge  to  accidents, 
though  not  one  penny  of  this  is  spent  with  any  idea  of 
gaining  relief  for  the  victims  of  the  accidents.  The 
average  compensation  payment  is  $400,  of  which  the 
plaintiff's  lawyer  usually  gets  one-half. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  New  York's  judicial  depart- 
ment is  only  a  partial  view  of  the  situation  resulting  from 
lack  of  caution  and  insufficient  conservation  of  our  human 
resources. 

The  judgments  which  are  entered  each  year  against 
persons  and  corporations  whom  the  courts  hold  responsible 
for  accidents,  total  into  an  incredibly  large  sum,  but  again 
this  is  only  one  phase  of  the  situation ;  it  takes  no  account 
of  human  suffering. 

Nobody  knows  how  great  a  sum  was  spent  in  1912  for 
defense  in  negligence  suits.  The  question  naturally  pre- 
sents itself:  Where  did  it  go?  Generally  speaking,  our 
system  of  accident  liability  is  about  as  commercially 
wasteful  as  could  be  devised.  Besides  being  unfair,  it  is 
unbusinesslike.  It  requires  the  employer  to  defend  and 
try  to  defeat,  or  at  least  to  limit,  exorbitant  demands  made 
in  negligence  suits;  and  it  almost  inevitably  entails  the 
injured  worker  getting  less  and  the  employer  paying  more 


6  SAFETY 

than  he  should,  while  the  expense  of  all  the  inevitable 
litigation  falls  in  taxes  on  the  general  public.  This  may 
be  minimized  where  a  system  of  "workmen's  compensa- 
tion" is  substituted  for  "employers'  liability,"  but  until 
that  is  accomplished  and  during  the  change  from  one 
system  to  another  the  burden  upon  the  taxpayers  will 
continue. 

Japan  in  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  by  careful  prepara- 
tion and  organization  and  the  application  of  practical 
sanitary  measures  through  a  fully  equipped  and  empow- 
ered medical  department,  reduced  the  mortality  in  her 
forces  by  more  than  80  per  cent. 

So  in  the  struggles  and  contests  of  business  it  is  per- 
fectly possible  for  our  industrialists  to  reduce  materially 
their  accident  and  sick  list,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
notably  successful  in  doing  so.  In  1911,  for  instance,  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  reduced  the  serious  accidents  to 
their  33,000  shop  men  63  per  cent,  over  the  previous  year. 

Considering  that  every  wage-earning  life  is  an  economic 
asset  of  the  country  at  large,  to  say  nothing  of  the  human 
suffering,  it  becomes  apparent  that  whenever  a  life  is 
lost  or  a  person  taken  from  the  rank  of  workers  there 
must  be  a  corresponding  increase  in  cost  of  maintenance 
for  the  remainder  of  the  population.  Thus,  the  manu- 
facturer who  finds  that  he  has  lost  money  in  the  compen- 
sation of  injured  workmen,  in  the  reduction  of  operating 
time,  and  in  the  loss  of  certain  salable  output,  charges  it  to 
the  cost  of  production;  and  it  is  the  consumer  who  pays 
the  bill. 

In  this  economic  waste  may  be  found  one  basic  cause 
for  the  increased  cost  of  living,  for  every  year  an  army  of 
producers  are  incapacitated  and  reduced  to  the  rank  of 
consumers,  imposing  an  ever-increasing  burden  upon 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OP    SAFETY 


UNITED   STATES   STEEL  CORPORATION 

CHART    SHOWING    COMPARATIVE    STATEMENT    OF    ACCI- 
DENTS AND  RELIEF— 1906  TO   1911,   INCLUSIVE 


1906 milliim. 
1907  ^| 
1908 -T 


1909 ! 


1911 


Heavy  line  shows  reduction  in  serious  and  fatal  accidents,  using 
1906  as  a  basis. 

Dotted  line  shows  increase  in  total  casualty  expenses  per  employee, 
using  1906  as  a  basis  (not  including  amount  spent  for  safety). 

The  slight  increase  of  serious  and  fatal  accidents  in  1911  over  1910 
is  due  to  a  change  in  classification  of  accidents,  established  January 
i,  1911,  resulting  in  more  accidents  being  classed  as  serious  than 
formerly  were  so  classed. 

The  fatal  accidents  in  1911  were  27.27  per  cent  less  than  in  1910. 

society  in  general,  to  say  nothing  of  that  upon  the  city 
departments  of  health,  charity,  and  police. 

In  1910  Germany  compensated  5,704,429  cases  of  sick- 
ness, equivalent  to  113,459,544  days  of  incapacity  for 
work.  Through  her  economic  forethought  in  recognizing 
that  the  non-impairment  of  the  efficiency  and  productivity 
of  her  wage-earners  is  her  greatest  civic  and  social  asset 
Germany  has  cut  in  half  her  accident  and  sick  cases. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  is  about  one-third 


8  SAFETY 

greater  than  that  of  Germany.  In  our  country  there  has 
been  no  concerted  effort  to  reduce  accidents  and  sickness, 
but  on  the  basis  of  Germany's  statistics  we  can  reasonably 
assume  that  the  days  lost  to  our  workmen  through  sick- 
ness and  incapacity  for  work  would  be  twice  that  of 
Germany,  or  226, 919, 088.  Reckoning  $ i . 5 o  as  an  average 
day's  wage,  the  annual  loss  in  wage-earning  efficiency 
may  thus  be  conservatively  estimated  at  $300,000,000. 

With  the  need  for  safety  and  caution  in  the  fields  of 
labor,  and  hygiene  made  a  part  of  the  education  of  our 
children,  the  next  generation  of  citizens  should  be  able  to 
turn  this  stream  of  wastefulness  into  channels  of  increased 
dividends,  salaries,  and  wages.  A  barrier  against  the  rising 
tide  of  this  wastefulness  in  our  national  life,  is  the  con- 
sciousness that  gives  the  worker  a  feeling  of  proper  pro- 
tection. Safety  relieves  the  tension,  prevents  accidents, 
maintains  health,  and  is  an  economy  for  the  employer,  for, 
in  addition  to  removing  cause  for  damage  suits  or  the  loss 
of  skilled  employees,  the  output  of  the  plant  is  increased. 

A  large  number  of  industrialists  have  been  quick  to  see 
this,  but  there  are  still  many  whose  outlook  is  yet  not 
capable  of  grasping  anything  beyond  the  first,  compara- 
tively trivial,  expense  entailed  by  proper  precautions  for 
safety. 

In  short,  one  of  the  most  important  phases  of  our  future 
development  is  the  work  of  creating  an  inexpensive, 
efficient  hand-rail  at  the  top  of  our  industrial  precipice 
to  take  the  place  of  the  unreliable  and  expensive  ambu- 
lance at  the  bottom. 

A  recent  case  brought  to  light  how  one  manufacturer, 
even  after  the  inspector's  report  had  been  received,  left 
a  floor  pit  uncovered.  Shortly  afterward  a  workman  fell 
into  it  and  received  $  1 5 ,000  damages.  Literally,  a  wooden 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY  9 

hand-rail  at  the  top  of  this  precipice  would  have  cost 
$5 — the  ambulance  cost  $15,000. 

Europe,  generally  speaking,  has  removed  that  constant 
feeling  of  dread  which  hung  over  every  workman  and 
made  him  realize  it  was  only  his  daily  earning  capacity 
which  kept  himself  and  his  family  from  starvation.  Each 
wage-earner  has  been  made  of  more  worth  to  himself,  to 
his  employer,  and  to  his  community. 

In  direct  contrast  is  the  position  of  the  American 
workman.  His  only  possession  is  his  daily  labor;  and 
he  knows  it.  The  grim  specter  Want  stands  forever 


DANGER   IN   THE    UNGUARDED   OPENING;     SAFETY   ON   ACCOUNT   OF    IRON 

RAILING 

nudging  his  elbow,  while  he  is  made  to  gamble  his  all 
against  death  or  injury.  ;;And  the  result  is  that  he  is 
working  at  a  tension  which  inevitably  exacts  its  toll  in. 
lowered  operating  efficiency. 

In  all  the  talk  of  " efficiency"  which  is  flooding  the 
country  experts  overlook  the  human  element.  Efficiency 
which  concerns  itself  merely  with  speeding  up  the  man,  so 
as  to  approximate  the  precision  of  the  machine,  requiring 
one  motion  where  he  made  two  before,  will  more  and  more 
tend  to  make  the  man  of  not  much  more  value  than  the 


io  SAFETY 

cog  on  the  wheel.  This  attitude  toward  efficiency  cannot 
fail  to  devitalize  and  de-energize  the  man,  making  him 
less  valuable  to  himself  and  to  his  employer.  Overstrain 
and  overspeeding  can  be  shown  to  raise  many  undesirable 
conditions  among  employees.  Chief  of  these  is  the 
creation  of  a  desire  for  stimulants,  which  inevitably  leads 
to  impaired  health,  less  usefulness  to  the  employer,  and 
'tendency  toward  a  corrupting  influence  on  fellow- workers. 
True  efficiency  must  rest  on  accident  prevention,  im- 
proved hygiene,  and  mutuality. 

Any  efficiency  movement  which  is  not  based  on  the 
sense  of  security  due  to  a  thorough  system  of  accident 
prevention,  the  maintenance  of  health  through  sanitary 
conditions  of  work,  and  mutuality,  or  those  reciprocal 
relations  of  good-will  which  must  obtain  between  capital 
and  labor,  or  any  industrial  system  which  ignores  these 
fundamentals  is  foredoomed  to  failure. 

Some  one  has  said  that  the  principal  progress  of  the 
present  century  will  be  in  making  the  policy  of  "preven- 
tion" take  the  place  of  "compensation" — namely,  the 
prevention  of  disease  by  sanitation,  the  prevention  of 
unrest  and  extreme  poverty  by  advances  in  social  science, 
and  of  industrial  accidents  by  the  elimination  of  unneces- 
sary hazards  in  the  field  of  labor. 

This  is  a  time  of  intense  competition.  Organizations 
advance  or  hold  their  own  only  through  the  most  rigid 
conservation  of  their  energies  and  resources,  the  most 
active  co-operation  between  employer  and  employee,  and 
the  wisest  guidance  of  their  executives. 

Waste  in  any  form  is  a  drag.  It  gnaws  steadily  into  the 
credit  side  of  the  ledger.  Loss  of  life,  injury,  or  even 
the  temporary  illness  of  an  employee  is  waste — dollars 
lost  not  merely  from  the  minor  viewpoint  of  the  pay-roll, 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY          n 

but  from  the  much  more  important  side  of  co-operation 
and  public  opinion. 

It  is  certain  that  the  general  efficiency  of  any  business 
is  at  a  higher  standard  when  the  employees  feel  that 
their  lives,  their  health,  and  their  interests  are  matters 
of  importance  to  the  management  than  when  this  feeling 
is  absent.  As  to  public  opinion,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  in  this  day  the  good  opinion  of  the  general  public 
represents  a  tangible  asset — something  which  may  be 
measured  and  placed  on  a  dollars-and-cents  basis,  as 
when  it  is  sought  through  the  advertising  pages  of  period- 
icals and  paid  for  in  sums  ranging  from  a  few  hundred 
up  to  one  million  dollars  cash  annually.  And  this  good 
opinion,  so  hard  to  gain,  is  easily  lost. 

In  seeking  illustrations  of  national  movements  for 
lessening  industrial  accidents  the  field  of  selection  is 
practically  limited  to  Germany.  If  now  our  indus- 
trialists are  wise  they  can  avail  themselves  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  paternal  and  aristocratic  efficient  direction  by 
setting  forth  again  and  again  in  simple  language  to  the 
millions  of  democracy  the  clean-cut  issues  of  wage- 
earning  conservation. 

Every  German  employer — and  to-day  there  are  up- 
ward of  725,000  individuals  and  corporations — must 
belong  to  the  trade  association  of  the  business  in  which 
he  is  engaged.  His  accident  premium  is  the  sum  he 
pays  his  trade  association  to  insure  his  workmen's 
safety,  and  is  based  on  the  amount  of  his  pay-roll  and 
the  risk  of  his  business.  All  occupations  are  divided 
into  danger  classes,  the  premium  on  each  class  being 
fixed  by  means  of  a  "danger  tariff"  based  on  twenty-six 
years  of  experience  of  the  respective  trades. 

Every  German  employer  knows  only  too  well  how 


12  SAFETY 

searchingly  any  accident  will  be  investigated;  how 
almost  the  first  question  asked  will  be  "Was  there  a 
proper  safeguard  provided?"  And  how,  if  blame  at- 
taches to  him,  he  will  be  heavily  fined  for  the  compen- 
sation payment  which  his  associates  in  the  same  trade 
must  make  for  his  carelessness. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  number  of  casualties 
which  have  been  prevented  by  the  many  small  and 
comparatively  simple  safety  arrangements.  The  dura- 
bility of  these  devices  soon  recoups  the  employer  for  any 
initial  expense;  but,  what  is  of  far  more  worth,  his  acci- 
dent premium  grows  constantly  less  on  account  of  the 
lowered  risk. 

However,  in  Germany,  almost  to  the  same  degree  as  in 
America,  the  unwillingness  of  workmen  to  use  safety 
devices  is  encountered.  But  when  the  expense  of  any 
accident  falls  on  the  employers  through  their  respective 
associations  they  see  to  it  that  their  workmen  use  the 
safety  devices  provided  whether  they  want  to  or  not. 

France  and  Italy  both  yield  helpful  suggestions  in  the 
organization  in  each  country  of  associations  of  em- 
ployers for  the  prevention  of  accidents.  Their  objects 
are: 

First,  a  prevention  of  accidents  in  the  use  of  machines,  in  physical 
or  chemical  operations,  and  in  the  various  shops  where  structural 
work  is  done. 

Secondly,  to  seek  the  most  effective  means  of  tabulating  the  experi- 
ence of  members  and  placing  it,  for  instant  reference,  at  the  disposal 
of  others;  such  as  the  periodical  inspection  of  factories  and  workshops, 
communicating  efficient  methods  of  protecting  workmen,  indicating 
the  best  rules  for  their  regulation,  and  by  publications  explaining  the 
law  and  its  operation  on  industrial  matters. 

Thirdly,  to  recompense,  by  prizes  or  other  awards,  those  who,  by  the 
invention  of  appliances,  processes,  or  by  the  practical  application  of 
any  device  in  their  own  factory,  have  contributed  to  the  lessening  of 
accidents  or  the  best  sanitation  of  their  plants. 


GEARS   ON   SMALL   PUNCH-PRESSES   WELL   GUARDED   AT  THE   NATIONAL   CASH 
REGISTER    COMPANY 


INDIVIDUAL    EXHAUSTS    FOR    POWDERY    SUBSTANCES    AT    THE    SIEMENS-SCHUCKERT 

WORKS 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY          13 

The  chief  advantages  of  membership  in  these  associa- 
tions are  oftentimes  the  means  of  reducing  one-half  the 
industrial  accidents,  promoting  the  security  of  workers 
and  tranquillity  for  the  proprietor,  the  creation  in  favor 
of  the  employer  of  presumptive  evidence  that  his 
caution  and  foresight  will  tend  to  a  more  favorable 
consideration  of  any  accident  case  when  brought  into 
court,  also  progressive  lowering  of  accident  -  insurance 
premiums  resulting  from  the  lessened  risk  of  accidents. 
Pamphlets  on  special  trades  have  passed  through  several 
editions.  Frequently  issued  circulars  inform  members 
of  the  text  of  new  laws,  with  observations  and  conclusions 
of  the  legal  committee  on  the  law  in  question.  The 
associations  also  furnish  to  members  posters  for  use  in 
workrooms  regarding  the  use  of  dangerous  machinery, 
with  precautionary  measures. 

Attending  with  the  marked  success  in  the  advance- 
ment of  the  science  of  the  industry  are  the  furtherance 
of  reciprocal  relations,  an  increased  respect  and  good- will 
between  the  two  great  wings  of  the  industrial  army,  capi- 
tal and  labor. 

In  pointing  out  the  excellent  results  of  the  close  co- 
operation between  capital  and  labor  Dr.  Kaufmann, 
president  of  the  Imperial  Insurance,  in  his  speech  in 
1909,  on  the  occasion  of  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of 
workmen's  insurance  in  Germany,  said: 

Our  German  employers  have  proved  worthy  of  our  trust.  They 
have  willingly  borne  the  burden  of  accident  insurance;  and,  what  is 
far  more  important,  have  given  time  and  personal  attention  to  this 
cause,  in  spite  of  the  overwhelming  demands  of  a  tremendous  commer- 
cial expansion,  rightly  judging  that  not  money  alone,  but  a  broad 
humanitarian  interest  must  be  the  basis  of  such  a  work. 

The  result  has  been  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  employee,  in 
stimulating  the  employer  to  found  benevolent  institutions  and  to 
establish  measures  for  the  protection  and  advancement  of  employees. 


14  SAFETY 

It  is  always  the  greatest  blessing  of  a  good  deed  that  it  opens  up  a  vista 
of  future  opportunities. 

In  this  connection  I  wish  to  repeat  what  I  have  said  on  many 
former  occasions — to  emphasize  the  political  importance  of  this  in- 
dustrial association.  A  common  meeting-ground  and  a  common  work 
in  the  trade  association  have  brought  employers  together,  promoting 
mutual  understanding  and  abolishing  prejudices.  If  the  employers 
from  north,  east,  south,  and  west  are  now  working  together  for  the 
common  weal,  it  is  the  trade  association  we  have  to  thank  for  this 
great  German  industrial  unity. 

Our  industrialists  strive  constantly  for  higher  speed, 
for  increased  efficiency  in  the  machine,  the  tool.  The 
whole  wealth  of  our  inventive  genius  has  been  lavished 
without  stint  on  perfecting  the  mechanical  side  of  labor, 
with  little  or  no  thought  of  its  humanitarian  aspect. 
It  can  be  shown,  however,  that  no  country  long  stands 
in  the  front  ranks  of  civilization  which  does  not  take 
as  much  care  of  the  worker  as  of  the  machine  itself. 

In  1893  Holland  felt  that  thevtime  had  come  to  show 
her  employers  how  they  could  prevent  accidents  to 
workers.  A  dwelling-house  was  rented  and  filled  with 
actual  devices,  models  and  photographs,  showing  how 
to  protect  the  dangerous  parts  of  machines  and  processes. 
To-day  the  wisdom  of  that  industrial  prevision  has 
flowered  into  the  establishment  of  a  new  and  beautiful 
building  in  the  city  of  Amsterdam.  It  stands  diago- 
nally opposite  the  famous  Rjyks  Museum. 

The  same  thing  occurred  in  Berlin  when,  in  1903,  a 
few  citizens  held  a  small  exhibit  of  safety  devices  to 
arouse  public  interest.  This  was  the  second  great 
advance  in  the  German  ideals  of  social  evolution  which 
began  under  Bismarck.  It  succeeded  so  well  that  the 
government  soon  took  over  all  obligations  for  its  en- 
largement and  permanent  maintenance.  At  the  present 
time  this  museum  stands  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  the 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OP   SAFETY         15 

V 


METAL   GUARD   FOR  CUTTER;    EXHAUST    FOR   GRINDING   DUST 

world.  Yet  Germany,  seeing  the  incalculable  benefits 
that  were  being  constantly  derived  from  this  source,  has 
established  a  second  museum  in  Munich,  a  third  is  under 
way  in  Dresden,  and  to-day  the  problem  in  Germany  is 
solved. 

The  only  agency  for  safety  definitely  patronized  by 
our  government  is  the  Labor  Department,  but  this  de- 
partment, of  necessity,  operates  within  a  limited  sphere 
and  with  limited  means,  entirely  disproportioned  to  the 
needs  of  the  situation. 


16  SAFETY 

The  whole  scheme  of  safety  must  be  developed  by  dis- 
interested bodies  of  citizens  who  spend  their  own  time 
and  money  freely  to  establish  such  institutions  as  the 
American  Museum  of  Safety.  The  municipal  govern- 
ment supports  museums  of  art  and  museums  of  natural 
history,  and  for  no  other  reason  than  that  of  self- 
protection  it  should  help  to  support  a  museum  of 
safety. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  discuss  the  second  sphere 
of  human  conservation — namely,  health.  It  is  not 
enough  to  protect  the  worker's  life  and  limbs  through  the 
prevention  of  mechanical  accidents.  His  health  must  be 
maintained  so  that  he  can  do  his  full  share  in  swelling 
the  output. 

The  hygienic  elevation  of  the  masses  comes  within  the 
scope  of  federal,  state,  and  city  aid,  but  these  directing 
forces  of  political  and  social  life  are  almost  powerless  to 
control  the  sanitary  habits  of  individuals.  Education 
by  demonstration  and  persuasion  is  the  work  of  a  museum 
of  safety  or  other  form  of  associated  effort  among 
industrialists. 

Industrial  hygiene  now  occupies  the  same  plane  of 
social  welfare  as  general  hygiene.  Workmen  suffering 
from  occupational  ailments  are  also,  through  lowered 
vitality,  rendered  more  susceptible  to  infectious  diseases 
by  which  the  general  health  of  an  entire  community  is 
sometimes  imperiled. 

The  principles  of  industrial  hygiene  are  the  same  as 
those  of  hygiene  in  general.  The  ventilation,  heating, 
lighting,  dust  removal,  and  water-supply  in  foundry,  mill, 
and  workshop  should  receive  the  same  care  and  consider- 
ation as  in  the  most  sanitary  dwelling. 

Impure  water  may  not  always  produce  typhoid,  but 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY          17 

almost  invariably  does  produce  stomach  and  bowel 
disorders.  Typhoid  at  once  removes  the  man  from  the 
pay-roll,  and  another  takes  his  place;  indisposition  of  a 
day  or  two,  half  a  day,  or  even  an  hour  with  no  one 
taking  the  place  of  the  absentee  means  smaller  output 
from  the  same  pay-roll. 

As  an  illustration  of  attention  to  details  in  securing 
the  continuous  services  of  its  workmen  the  National 
Tube  Company  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation 
may  be  cited.  At  an  expense  of  several  thousand  dol- 
lars they  installed  a  refrigerating  plant  so  that  the 
drinking-water  throughout  the  rolling-mills  and  other 
parts  of  the  plant  might  be  maintained  at  an  even  tem- 
perature the  year  round.  While  it  proved  a  good  in- 
vestment at  all  times,  its  benefit  was  most  pronounced 
in  the  summer,  when  the  water  kept  a  " spring"  temper- 
ature of  about  48  degrees.  Last  summer  hardly  a  man 
was  absent  from  work  on  account  of  stomach  or  bowel 
troubles. 

There  is,  of  course,  always  a  direct  connection  between 
disease  and  impure  water.  A  Philadelphia  employer 
installed  a  sterilizing  apparatus  for  water  at  a  cost  of 
$1,500.  He  states  that  each  year  it  has  saved  him 
$2,000.  Previous  to  its  installation  the  average  daily 
absence  was  sixteen,  which  afterward  was  reduced  to 
only  two.  In  computing  the  saving  the  quicker  re- 
lease of  money  tied  up  in  process  of  manufacture, 
rental  of  floor  space,  charges  to  tools,  and  increased  out- 
put were  reckoned. 

There  is  an  increasing  number  of  industrialists  who 
are  realizing  the  importance  of  information  for  promot- 
ing improved  hygiene  along  economic  lines,  but  there  is 
still  a  larger  number  of  works'  managers  who  are  igno- 


i8  SAFETY 

rant  of  what  hygiene  engineering  would  accomplish  for 
them  in  their  own  field. 

Unsanitary  workrooms  have  an  economic  bearing  on 
the  output  of  a  plant.  Sanitary  conditions  mean  that 
the  employer  has  the  continuous  service  which  results 
in  the  fullest  co-operation.  The  small  outlay  for  acci- 
dent prevention  and  better  health  conditions  is  always 
very  quickly  made  up  by  the  lessened  charges  for  acci- 
dent compensation  and  payments  for  sick  benefits. 
The  larger  industries  have  their  own  laboratories  for 
testing  the  noxious  qualities  of  substances  and  for  new 
investigations.  But  for  the  thousands  of  smaller  plants 
an  organization  like  a  museum  of  safety  is  a  necessity, 
for  only  from  such  a  source  may  this  specialized  knowl- 
edge be  secured. 

In  industry  there  are  certain  occupational  diseases  and 
dangers  not  met  with  in  other  callings  and  professions; 
among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  dangers  to  health 
due  to  industrial  poisons,  ,such  as  lead,  antimony, 
mercury,  phosphorus,  etc.,  and  to  the  animal,  vegetable, 
fiber,  mineral,  and  metal  dusts  encountered  in  the 
various  trades. 

Occupational  diseases  have  been  recognized  for  a  long 
while,  but  scientific  research  as  to  their  causes  and 
effects  is  a  recent  activity.  The  fund  of  knowledge  so 
far  acquired  has  been  the  basis  for  much  legislation. 
Social  hygiene  in  its  newer  development  is  constantly 
evoking  new  facts,  thanks  to  the  diffusion  of  technical 
knowledge  and  the  rise  of  new  industries. 

Concrete  illustration  of  this  is  offered  in  the  improved 
sanitation  of  wood-working  shops  by  means  of  systems 
for  exhausting  the  dust  arising  from  machines.  This 
is  comparatively  new.  The  Germans  having  recently 


SPECIMEN    OF    SANDSTONE    FROM    WORK-          MAGNIFIED    SPECIMEN   OF    SANDSTONE 
MAN'S   GOGGLES 


TRAVELING  EXHIBIT  OF  THE  GERMAN  WOODWORKERS'  UNION  SHOWING  OCCUPATIONAL 

DISEASES    DUE    TO   DUSTS 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY          19 

discovered  that  certain  obscure  diseases  among  wood- 
workers are  due  to  the  noxious  qualities  of  some  wood 
dusts,  the  dangers  have  been  recognized  and  the  way 
paved  for  their  elimination.  This  means  also  that  the 
inquiry  must  be  pushed  back  to  a  study  of  the  environ- 
ment in  which  the  workman  lives — in  other  words,  that 
which  is  connoted  by  the  term  Social  Hygiene. 

The  prevention  of  occupational  diseases  is  not  merely 
a  social  duty,  the  duty  of  every  man  toward  his  brother 
man.  Economic  consideration  and  the  world's  com- 
petitive struggle  make  it  imperative  that  the  health  and 
strength  of  our  wage-earners  be  maintained  at  the 
highest  point  of  efficiency  for  the  maximum  period. 
Those  familiar  with  the  subject  of  industrial  hygiene 
recognize  the  value  of  healthy,  skilled  workers.  The 
means  used  to  promote  the  health  of  workers,  therefore, 
are  worth  many  times  over  what  they  cost  the  employer 
in  money,  time,  and  thought. 

For  example,  work  in  foundries  and  their  various 
branches  is  generally  of  a  complex  nature,  and  because 
of  this  condition  vary  in  different  shops  and  localities. 

Of  first  importance  in  depriving  the  management  of 
continuous  service  at  high  efficiency  are  pulmonary  and 
bronchial  troubles,  tuberculosis  in  its  various  forms,  diph- 
theria, hernia,  rheumatism,  heart  and  kidney  troubles. 
Then  follow  burns,  bruises,  sprains,  and  internal  injuries. 
Cause  for  the  ailments  first  mentioned  are  poorly  lighted, 
ventilated,  and  heated  shops,  unsanitary  lockers,  wash- 
ing facilities,  and  water-closets,  besides  lack  of  room  for 
drying  and  changing  clothing.  Injuries  in  the  second 
category  are  generally  due  to  insufficient  space,  lack  of 
inspection  of  mechanical  devices,  and  improper  footwear 
in  the  case  of  men  handling  molten  metal. 


20  SAFETY 

Recently  the  doctor  of  the  National  Cash  Register 
Company,  examining  a  suffering  employee,  remarked : 

"  It's  a  bad  case  of  blood-poisoning,  but  for  the  life  of 
me  I  do  not  see  how  it  could  have  happened.  This 
machinist  had  nothing  the  matter  with  him  except  a 
slight  cut  on  the  hand  when  I  first  saw  him;  but  now  it 
looks  as  though  his  arm  must  be  amputated." 

In  some  way  the  chemist  of  the  company  learned  of  the 
case.  "I  wonder  if  the  oil  had  anything  to  do  with  it?" 
he  thought,  though  of  course  bacteria  in  oil  used  on 
machinery  seemed  impossible.  What  was  his  surprise 
upon  analysis  to  find  the  oil  swarming  with  bacteria. 
As  the  oil  in  this  plant  is  used  over  and  over  again,  it  had 
gradually  become  infected  through  impurities  that  had 
gathered.  It  was  found  also  that  some  of  the  men  had 
thoughtlessly  expectorated  into  the  cans.  As  a  result 
of  this  investigation  all  the  oil  is  now  subjected  to  a  degree 
of  heat  sufficient  to  kill  any  dangerous  bacteria,  and  a 
known  amount  of  sickness  every  year  is  thus  eliminated. 

In  a  recent  study  made  by  the  American  Museum  of 
Safety  of  shop  conditions  affecting  4,760  molders  enrolled 
in  22  labor-unions,  the  following  conditions  were  disclosed: 

VENTILATION:   56  shops  well  ventilated,  33  fairly  well,  57  poorly. 

LIGHTING:   61  shops  well  lighted,  21  fairly  well,  62  poorly. 

HEATING:   63  shops  well  heated,  23  fairly,  58  poorly. 

WASHING  FACILITIES:  35  shops  with  sanitary  facilities,  3  fair,  107 
without  sanitary  facilities. 

LOCKERS:  26  shops  with  sanitary  lockers,  3  fair,  116  shops  without 
sanitary  lockers. 

TOILETS:  51  shops  with  sanitary  toilets,  3  fair  toilets,  76  shops  with- 
out sanitary  toilets. 

INSPECTION  OF  MACHINERY:  61  shops  regularly  inspected,  59  not 
regularly  inspected. 

FLOORS  WHEN  CASTING:   83  shops  with  clean  floors,  19  fair,  42  bad. 

The  same  facts  expressed  diagrammatically  show: 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY 


21 


GOOD 


Toilets  |  J9.2 

Cleanness  of 
floors  at  |  57.6 

casting   time 


CHART  SHOWING  GOOD  AND  BAD   WORKING  CONDITIONS  IN  MOLDING  SHOPS 

Again,  in  a  certain  town  in  New  York  State  the  foundries 
employ  some  1,500  men.  Only  two  of  these  shops  are  of 
modern  construction,  and  even  in  these  very  much  more 
could  be  done  for  the  improvement  of  sanitary  conditions. 

The  other  shops  are  low,  dark,  poorly  ventilated,  and 
overcrowded ;  they  are  provided  with  poor  hoisting  and  lift- 
ing facilities,  very  poor  toilets,  and  no  washing  accommoda- 
tions. Owing  to  the  excessive  strain  of  rolling  and  lifting 
heavy  implements,  together  with  the  above-mentioned 
unsanitary  conditions,  the  men  are  discontented  and  take 
no  interest  in  their  work.  They  violate  all  rules  of  sani- 
tary decency,  bring  liquor  into  the  plant,  which  they  drink 
during  working-hours,  and  abuse  and  torment  their  fore- 
men. As  a  result  the  output  of  plants  such  as  these  is 
needlessly  restricted. 

The  foremen  are  thoroughly  aware  of  these  facts,  but 
feel  themselves  powerless,  and  so  remain  indifferent,  well 
knowing  that  any  action  which  they  may  take  may  bring 
about  labor  troubles,  the  responsibility  for  which  they 
will  not  assume.  These  firms  not  only  lose  the  advantages 


22 


SAFETY 


of  the  full  capacity  of  their  shops,  but  also  considerable 
loss  in  trade. 

The  men,  on  the  other  hand,  feel  that  if  no  one  thinks 
it  worth  while  to  give  them  better  working  conditions 
their  management  will  put  up  with  whatever  attitude 
they  care  to  take,  or  they  will  get  a  job  elsewhere. 

As  one  workman  of  the  better  sort  remarked:  "Gee!  I 
don't  know  how  long  I  can  stand  the  work  in  this  shop. 
There's  the  biggest  gang  here  of  booze-fighters  on  earth, 
and  you  've  got  to  move  with  the  gang  or  they'll  get  you !" 

In  many  shops  where  the  piece-work  system  prevails 
the  men  make  fairly  high  wages  with  a  nine-hour  day. 
But  the  speed  required  combined  with  the  constant  strain 
and  exertion  so  weakens  and  exhausts  the  men  mentally 
and  physically  that  they  seek  renewed  strength  or  re- 
laxation in  alcohol. 

From  earliest  times  the  soul  of  man  has  been  striving 
for  expression :  the  Pyramids,  the  Parthenon,  the  Forum, 
Shakespeare,  Wagner,  and  Morse  stand  for  the  outward 
manifestation  of  this  striving.  To-day  the  sanctity  of 
human  life  is  being  materialized  in  the  stone  and  brick 
of  safety  museums,  life-saving  stations,  laboratories  for 
conservation  of  life  and  limb,  proving  grounds,  for  indus- 
trialists of  the  country  at  large.  In  these  museums  every 
known  device  which  has  been  proven  commercially  useful 
is  laid  before  the  public,  so  that  no  employer  may  be  sub- 
jected to  the  enormous  expense  of  experimenting  with 
human  life  to  find  practical  appliances  suited  to  his  needs. 
In  this  manner  identity  of  interest  in  the  three  parties 
concerned  is  preserved  —  namely,  the  employer,  the  em- 
ployee, and  the  government  representing  the  entire 
community. 

The  civilized  world  now  finds  itself  on  the  threshold  of 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    SAFETY          23 

a  great  transition,  a  change  which  will  have  its  effect  upon 
all  fields  of  labor,  from  the  lighting  of  a  lamp  to  the 
running  of  an  express-train,  a  change  from  the  inadequate 
and  costly  compensation  to  the  cheaper  and  more  humane 
prevention. 

If  now  the  United  States  would  escape  the  reproach  of 
being  the  only  nation  that  fails  to  recognize  the  tre- 
mendous question  involved  in  the  needless  sacrifice  of 
life  we  must  stop  and  think.  No  one  section,  no  one  group, 
no  one  combination  of  interests  can  remove  the  stigma. 
The  awakening  must  be  national. 


II 

NEGLECTED    FACTORS 

HHAT  it  is  possible  for  employers  to  overcome  the 

1  antagonism  of  labor -unions  was  demonstrated  by 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  who  once  were  savagely 
accused  of  failing  to  provide  safety  devices  for  their 
operatives.  'Til  tell  you  what  I'll  do,"  said  the  com- 
pany's superintendent  to  the  representative  of  the  union, 
"you  appoint  a  committee,  and  I'll  have  everything  in  our 
plant  thrown  open  to  them,  if  they  will  come  and  see  for 
themselves  what  we  are  doing  to  protect  our  men  from 
accidents."  His  offer  was  accepted,  and  as  a  result  of 
the  inspection  the  union  gave  the  company  a  clean  bill 
for  accident  prevention  and  apologized  for  their  previous 
attacks,  which  they  admitted  were  not  based  on  a  knowl- 
edge of  facts.  This  policy  of  "getting  together"  on  dis- 
puted questions  often  promotes  better  understanding 
between  employers  and  employees. 

Another  method  is  for  the  employer  to  present  to  his 
employees,  through  illustrated  lectures,  the  principles  of 
accident  prevention  and  health  helps,  so  that  the  workers 
may  realize  the  importance  of  individual  caution,  per- 
sonal hygiene,  and  self-control. 

In  1911  an  educational  campaign  of  this  very  nature 
was  inaugurated  by  Charles  Kirchhoff,  chairman  of  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Section  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Safety.  Each  lecture  was  richly  illustrated  by  lantern 


NEGLECTED    FACTORS  25 

slides  showing  safety  devices  in  use  in  the  best  iron  and 
steel  practice.  These  conferences  were  held  under  the 
auspices  of  such  companies  as  the  Pennsylvania  Steel 
Company;  Wheeling  Steel  and  Iron  Company;  Whitaker- 
Glessner  Company;  La  Belle  Iron  Works;  American 
Bridge  Company,  Pencoyd ;  Youngstown  Sheet  and  Tube 
Company;  Republic  Iron  and  Steel  Company;  YoungSr 
town  Steel  Company;  Cambria  Steel  Company;  Jones 
and  Laughlin  Steel  Company;  Lacka wanna  Steel  Com-  ' 
pany;  National  Tube  Company ;  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

The  audiences  ranged  from  300  to  2,900  men,  in  most 
cases  no  one  under  the  grade  of  foreman  being  present. 
The  lectures  have  been  helpful  in  showing  the  manage- 
ment successful  safety  practice  in  other  plants,  while  the 
foremen  have  been  impressed  with  the  simple,  practical 
character  of  the  safeguards  and  the  necessity  for  greater 
caution  on  their  own  part.  All  this  information  is  bound 
to  come  indirectly  to  the  attention  of  the  various  labor 
organizations,  and  cannot  fail  to  prove  effective. 

A  contrast  to  the  indifference  of  American  labor  or- 
ganizations, as  admitted  by  some  of  their  leaders,  to 
questions  of  safety  so  vitally  connected  with  their  own 
well  being  is  offered  by  the  action  of  the  German  Wood 
Workers'  Union,  who  fine  their  members  for  failing  to 
make  use  of  those  safeguards  which  the  employer  fur- 
nishes. In  a  recent  manifesto  this  German  labor-union 
appealed  to  its  employers,  in  the  name  of  the  members 
of  its  craft  who  have  been  crippled  and  maimed  by  ma- 
chines, for  an  increase  of  inspectors,  so  that  a  thorough 
inspection  of  all  establishments  can  be  made  yearly;  the 
employment  of  inspectors  from  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
workers;  better  protection  for  wood-working  machines, 
and  strict  enforcement  of  safety  provisions;  together 


26  SAFETY 

with  heavy  and  frequent  fines  for  those  who  break  the 
safety  rules. 

From  the  department  of  factory  inspection  the  union 
demanded  that  lectures  on  safety  devices  with  practical 
descriptions  be  given  the  workmen,  and  that  each  in- 
spector should  take  with  him  an  experienced  machine 
operator  familiar  with  actual  conditions.  The  union  did 
not  stop  there,  but  carried  its  appeal  to  the  lawmakers, 
asking  for  an  increase  of  thorough  and  frequent  inspection 
of  all  plants;  a  maximum  day  for  wood-workers  of  ten 
hours,  with  a  reduction  of  hours  within  a  certain  period 
to  eight  hours,  no  women  workers,  or  the  employment  of 
youths  and  apprentices  under  seventeen  years  of  age,  on 
machine  work;  police  power  for  factory  inspectors; 
courses  of  instruction  on  accident  prevention  and  the  use 
of  safeguards  for  the  workers. 

In  a  recent  trip  of  inspection  from  coast  to  coast,  cover- 
ing fifteen  of  the  largest  universities  in  this  country,  there 
was  found  only  one  tool  in  one  shop  that  was  protected. 
No  university  or  school  was  found  that  made  any  pro- 
vision for  safety  devices  for  the  dangerous  parts  of  ma- 
chines and  processes,  where  the  students  were  fitting 
themselves  for  technical  positions,  in  which  they  would 
be  responsible  for  the  safety  of  workmen  under  them. 

A  large  standing  army  is  not  altogether,  as  sometimes 
depicted,  an  unmixed  evil;  army  service  provides  that 
nearly  all  the  adult  population  sooner  or  later  receives 
thorough  training  in  discipline  and  obedience.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  Continental  workman  comes  to  a  "Do." 
or  "Don't"  sign  in  shop  or  factory  his  impulse  is  to  obey 
that  order. 

Edward  Cadbury,  in  his  description  of  the  industrial 
organization  which  has  justly  made  this  English  firm  of 


NEGLECTED    FACTORS  27 

the  Cadburys  so  well  known  and  successful,  lays  down  as 
fundamental: 

The  supreme  principle  has  been  the  belief  that  business  efficiency 
and  the  welfare  of  the  employees  are  but  different  sides  of  the  same 
problem.  Character  is  an  economic  asset;  and  business  efficiency 
depends  not  merely  on  the  physical  condition  of  employees,  but  on  their 
general  attitude  and  feeling  toward  the  employer.  The  test  of  any 
scheme  of  factory  organization  is  the  extent  to  which  it  creates  and 
and  fosters  the  atmosphere  and  spirit  of  co-operation  and  good- will, 
without  in  any  sense  lessening  the  loyalty  of  the  worker  to  his  own 
class  and  its  organizations. 

On  entering  a  new  place  of  work  it  takes  some  little 
time  for  the  new-comer  to  become  familiar  with  conditions 
and  requirements.  To  that  end  books  of  rules  and  regula- 
tions are  helpful.  Quoting  from  the  introduction  to  the 
rule-book  of  a  very  successful  business  in  the  West : 

The  important  part  of  any  rule  is  the  spirit  of  it.  This  is  gained 
by  understanding  the  wisdom  and  necessity  of  the  rule,  and  not  by 
mere  obedience  because  it  is  a  rule.  No  rule  seems  nard  when  you 
see  that  it  is  wise — worked  out  from  experience  and  made  necessary 
by  existing  conditions.  .  • 

The  object  of  a  rule  is  not  to  abridge  the  rights  of  any  one,  but  to 
point  out  the  path  which  experience  has  taught  is  the  wise  one  to  fol- 
low. The  traveler  making  his  way  over  unaccustomed  roads  is  grate- 
ful for  the  guide-posts  which  tell  him  the  way  to  his  destination;  he 
never  complains  when  the  sign  at  the  crossing  tells  him  to  go  the  up- 
hill way,  for  he  is  glad  the  sign  is  there,  and  obeys  cheerfully  be- 
cause he  knows  he  is  on  the  right  road. 

The  aim  of  these  rules  is  to  give  to  our  employees  the  benefit  of  long 
experience,  to  save  them  retracing  unguided  steps,  to  enable  them  to 
grow  in  the  knowledge  of  sound  business  principles,  and  to  become  a 
credit  to  themselves  and  the  house. 

Keep  close  to  the  Rule-book;  follow  out  the  spirit  as  well  as  the 
letter  of  its  advice. 

It  is  often  said  that  even  if  safety  devices  are  provided 
workmen  .will  not  make  use  of  them.  This  is  true  of  the 
man  who  is  not  thoughtful  of  his  employer,  his  fellow- 


28  SAFETY 

workmen,  and  his  family,  and  is  a  characteristic  attitude 
of  ignorance  and  bravado.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
fix  the  responsibility,  through  compulsion,  in  the  use  of 
safety  devices.  The  foreman  is  generally  the  responsible 
head  for  the  workers  immediately  under  him,  for  he  sees 
that  new  workmen  are  instructed  in  the  use  of  machines 
to  which  they  are  assigned. 

As  he  holds  the  strategic  point  in  the  warfare  against 
accidents,  the  foreman  should  be  held  accountable.  A 
large  plant  recognizes  the  wisdom  of  this  procedure  and 
holds  the  foreman  responsible  for  accidents  to  his  men, 
whether  they  are  working  directly  under  him  or  the  sub- 
foreman. 

Whenever  a  man  is  put  at  work  on  a  new  job  where 
there  are  special  dangers,  he  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
structed by  his  foreman  and  "broken  in"  by  a  man 
familiar  with  that  work. 

No  man  should  be  put  to  work  on  any  job  until  the 
foreman  has  inspected  everything  and  satisfied  himself 
that  the  place  is  normally  safe.  If  a  man  violates  in- 
structions or  takes  chances  that  make  him  liable  to  in- 
jury, his  services  should  be  dispensed  with. 

A  foreman  needs  to  use  judgment  at  all  times  in  placing 
men  on  work;  heavy,  slow  men  should  not  be  placed  on 
jobs  where  light,  quick  men  are  required;  and  slow- 
thinking,  unintelligent  men  should  not  be  put  at  work 
on  machinery  or  in  places  where  presence  of  mind  is  re- 
quired, for  by  so  doing  the  probability  of  accidents  is,  of 
course,  increased  many  times. 

It  is  not  good  policy  to  employ  a  man  to  whom  no  one 
else  on  the  force  can  talk.  Wherever  possible,  only  men 
of  similar  nationality  should  be  intrusted  with  the  opera- 
tion of  machines.  If  an  accident  does  occur,  the  fore- 


NEGLECTED    FACTORS  29 

man  should  at  once  make  a  thorough  investigation  and 
furnish  a  report  which  may  prevent  its  recurrence. 

It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  watch  out  for  men  who  are 
hurt  frequently.  It  is  hard  to  discharge  them,  but  this 
is  better  than  running  the  constant  risk  that  their  clumsi- 
ness will  endanger  their  fellows. 

One  successful  firm  constantly  reminds  the  foremen 
that  the  management  will  always  take  into  consideration 
their  interest  in  the  work  of  protection  against  injury  in 
its  annual  review  of  their  work.  This  often  provides  the 
necessary  stimulus. 

Considering  that  the  whole  subject  is  one  in  which 
education  will  produce  better  results  than  compulsion, 
illustrated  lectures,  together  with  "reason- why"  talks 
and  leaflets,  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  stimulating 
co-operation  from  foremen  and  others  along  the  lines 
of  safety.  Some  large  concerns  have  adopted  a  com- 
pulsion policy  of  "discharge  the  foreman"  for  failing  to 
compel  workmen  to  use  the  safeguards  provided. 
While  both  of  these  methods  have  their  advantages, 
it  must  be  remembered  that,  whatever  the  policy 
adopted,  much  of  the  opposition  encountered  in  various 
directions  may  be  counted  upon  as  the  opposition  re- 
ceived by  all  innovations.  As  time  goes  on  it  will  be 
looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  course  that  the  use  of  safety 
devices  and  precautionary  hygienic  measures  should  be 
enforced. 

While  the  rule-book  of  every  company  fills  an  impor- 
tant place  in  an  effort  to  create  esprit  de  corps,  at  the  best 
its  appeal  cannot  help  becoming  mechanical,  resulting 
in  the  loss  of  much  of  its  force.  Taking  this  viewpoint, 
that  the  standard  rule-book  is  all  right  for  a  foundation, 
but  that  there  must  be  created  a  superstructure  of  loyalty, 


30  SAFETY 

sobriety,  honesty,  and  determination  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  to  advance,  the  Efficiency  Suggestion  Company, 
of  New  York  City,  has  found  a  successful  means  of  co- 
operating with  the  industrialist  in  this  important  point, 
by  issuing  what  might  be  called  guide-posts  on  the  road 
to  a  successful  career  for  workers  in  many  different  fields. 

Perhaps  this  plan  requires  a  word  of  explanation.  Brief- 
ly, the  pill  of  instruction  is  sugar  -  coated.  Illustrated 
lectures  have  been  found  by  employers  to  be  an  effective 
means  of  stimulating  those  qualities  which  they  desire 
to  evoke  in  the  employee;  but  this  new  plan  goes  a  step 
farther  and  presents  the  often  unwillingly  received  but 
valuable  message  carried  by  a  lecture  in  such  form  as  to 
attract  and  arrest  the  attention  upon  only  one  point  at 
a  time.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  series  of  fiction  and 
semi-fiction  leaflets,  written  and  illustrated  from  the  view- 
point of  the  worker,  and  which,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
can  be  counted  upon  to  kindle  the  enthusiasm  necessary 
to  profit  by  the  message  which  the  management  wishes 
to  convey. 

"In  the  United  States  skilled  mechanics,  all-round 
workmen,  are  getting  scarcer  every  day,"  observed  the 
general  manager  of  a  large  plant,  "and  we  are  at  our  wit's 
end  to  recruit  a  supply  sufficient  for  our  growing  .needs." 
The  prudent  employer  still  scraps  his  inefficient  machines, 
but  has  stopped  scrapping  his  labor.  He  realizes  that 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  worker's  power,  varying  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  work,  constitution,  personal  habits, 
frame  of  mind  of  the  individual,  and  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  performed. 

Even  in  the  non-hazardous  occupations,  if  the  body  and 
brain  are  forced  to  work  beyond  their  natural  capacity, 
if  the  work  is  too  severe  or  kept  up  too  long  at  a  time, 


SAFEGUARDED  DRILL-PRESS  IN  ONE  OF  THE   OLIVER  IRON 
MINING  COMPANY'S  SHOPS 


^ 


3^ 


^s?*?? 

•Nilll 

^«3a  BIIB 
l.iiaiHijii 


THE  NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER  COMPANY  CONSERVES  THE  HEALTH  OF  ITS  WORKERS 


NEGLECTED    FACTORS  31 

making  it  impossible  to  get  the  required  amount  of  rest 
and  recuperation,  the  vitality  becomes  weakened,  and 
sickness  and  disability  result  just  as  surely  as  in  those 
occupations  which  are  considered  dangerous  to  the  workers 
on  account  of  dusts,  poisons,  and  accidents. 

Every  machine  will  sooner  or  later  break  down  if  kept 
constantly  at  work  or  pushed  constantly  to  the  limits  of 
its  energy.  In  the  same  way  good  business  management 
opposes  overworking  the  human  machine  to  physical  and 
mental  exhaustion. 

,  Tired  muscles  and  brain  can  be  forced  to  keep  on  work- 
ing after  the  normal  fatigue-point  has  been  reached;  but 
in  doing  so  the  toxins  in  the  blood  are  many  times  in- 
creased, with  an  always  corresponding  increase  in  the  risk 
of  seriously  injuring  the  nervous  system.  This  point 
will  always  be  found  to  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the 
number  of  accidents  or  the  quality  of  the  output  per 
worker.  The  normal  fatigue-point,  as  has  already  been 
shown,  differs  with  the  occupation,  the  constitution,  and 
the  personal  habits  of  the  worker. 

Reasonable  work  hours ;  a  proper  amount  of  good  fresh 
air,  controlled  through  a  system  by  which  poisonous 
dust  or  gases  may  be  drawn  off;  good  lighting,  avoiding 
the  fatigue  due  to  eye  strain  and  the  resultant  danger  of 
accidents;  pure  drinking-water;  where  possible,  the  pro- 
viding of  seats  for  employees,  especially  women ;  a  lunch 
period  long  enough  to  allow  the  workers  to  relax  and  to 
eat  the  midday  meal  in  comfort  —  all  of  these  measures 
applied  in  the  workshop  will  reduce  a  large  part  of  the 
fatigue  and  weariness  now  felt  by  many  workers,  the  im- 
portance of  which  the  new  industrialism  has  only  just 
realized. 

The  practice  of  allowing  a  brief  recess  in  the  middle  of 


32  SAFETY 

the  afternoon,  when  most  workers  experience  what  is 
called  " three-o'clock  fatigue,"  is  now  being  adopted  by 
a  few  far-sighted  employers  who  realize  that  the  health 
and  vitality  of  their  workers  is  a  large  fundamental  in 
the  success  of  the  business. 

Fuller  working  efficiency  may  be  expected  when  the 
management  realizes  that  every  worker  does  not  start 
with  the  same  physical  equipment.  Those  with  weak 
nervous  systems,  who  become  exhausted  very  quickly, 
need  a  greater  amount  of  care,  rest,  and  recuperation 
from  their  efforts  than  those  endowed  with  greater  ner- 
vous endurance.  It  pays  to  make  allowance  for  these 
characteristics  in  the  assignment  of  tasks. 

In  certain  occupations  a  strained  position  while  at 
work  adds  to  the  natural  fatigue.  Cramped  muscles  and 
constriction  of  the  chest  result  in  shallow  breathing, 
which,  taken  in  connection  with  poor  circulation  of  the 
blood  and  other  unhealthy  conditions,  makes  some  work- 
ers more  liable  to  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs — in  other 
words,  lessens  their  efficiency  to  the  employer. 

A  serious  neglected  factor  is  failure  on  the  part  of  the 
management  to  recognize  the  craving  of  workmen  for  the 
temporary  stimulus  of  alcohol.  This  may  be  due  to  the 
poorly  prepared  foods  in  the  homes  from  which  they  come, 
so  that  a  stomachic  craving  exists,  which  is  temporarily 
alleviated  by  alcohol;  it  may  also  be  due  to  unsanitary  shop 
conditions,  and  highly  wrought  tension  due  to  the  pressure 
and  speed  of  modern  industry.  The  wise  capitalist  of  to-day 
recognizes  excessive  alcoholism  as  a  big  risk  in  his  business, 
and  that  the  more  he  can  cut  down  the  consumption  of 
alcohol  the  less  will  be  his  accident  rate  arid  the  greater 
the  health  of  his  personnel.  Where  there  are  large  num- 
bers of  workers  the  establishment  of  a  canteen  in  the 


NEGLECTED    FACTORS  33 

working-place  has  safety  value.  For  example,  in  1908 
the  Allgemeine  Elektricitaets  Gesellschaft  opened  a  can- 
teen in  their  factory  for  the  sale  of  non-intoxicants  under 
the  most  scientific  methods  of  making  palatable  and 
healthful  drinks.  Coffee,  seltzer,  lemonade,  syrups,  and 
beer  were  dispensed.  The  drinks  are  sold  from  different 
stations  about  the  plant,  but  to  avoid  confusion  in  dis- 
tribution they  are  brought  from  a  central  station.  The 
cost  is  2>^  cents  per  bottle.  In  January,  1909,  5,924 
workmen  bought  108,130  liters  of  beer  and  37,950  liters  of 
tea,  coffee,  and  soft  drinks.  Three  years  later  10,349 
workers  bought  155,900  liters  of  alcoholic  and  200,785 
liters  of  non-alcoholic  beverages,  while  during  the  month 
of  September,  1912,  11,982  workers  purchased  154,450 
liters  of  alcoholic  and  335,604  liters  of  non-alcoholic 
drinks.  The  accidents  decreased  proportionately. 

Alcoholism  strikes  at  the  workman  in  his  professional 
capacity;  it  renders  him  less  active  and  skilful  and  adds 
to  the  possibility  of  accident. 

Machinery  of  to-day  exacts  from  the  workman  his 
continual  attention,  a  watchfulness,  keen  and  sure,  an 
ability  that  calls  into  play  all  his  faculties.  It  is  necessary 
that  he  should  enter  upon  his  work  with  a  clear  mind  and 
a  mastery  of  himself  that  he  can  never  have  if  addicted 
to  the  use  of  strong  liquors.  It  is  therefore  to  the  interest 
of  both  the  chief  of  the  industry  and  the  workman  to 
fight  with  all  possible  means  against  this  redoubtable 
enemy,  alcohol.  The  chief  reasons  for  industrial  sobriety 
are  to  prevent  accidents,  to  assure  a  higher  grade  of  work 
and  stricter  economy. 

The  saloon's  attraction  for  the  ignorant  workman, 
fatigued  by  his  day's  labor,  is  perhaps  the  most  powerful. 
He  is  little  prepared  to  care  for  intellectual  pleasures,  and 


34  SAFETY 

if  he  Were  they  frequently  cost  him  more  than  he  can 
afford.  The  saloon  seems  to  offer  him  a  great  deal  for 
a  small  amount  of  money,  giving  him  some  moments  of 
comfort,  happiness,  and  even  gaiety. 

The  mention  of  Russia  does  not  perhaps  evoke  a  mental 
picture  of  a  country  striving  to  lessen  the  consumption  of 
alcohol,  yet  such  is  the  case. 

Temperance  committees  form  a  large  part  of  the  great 
reform  undertaken  by  Russia  for  lessening  the  abuse  of 
drink.  A  monopoly  of  alcohol  regulated  the  sale  of  in- 
toxicating liquors,  but,  while  frequently  eliminating  the 
old  saloon,  it  suppressed  at  the  same  time  the  only  place 
for  social  intercourse  that  existed  in  a  village.  It  was 
necessary  then  to  fill  this  gap  by  the  creation  of  a  series 
of  institutions  which  would  provide  instruction  and 
pleasure  for  the  people,  at  the  same  time  diverting  their 
thoughts  from  the  saloon.  Temperance  committees, 
therefore,  watch  over  the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  order 
that  they  may  conform  to  regulations  for  the  health  and 
morality  of  the  population;  instruct  the  people  in  a 
knowledge  of  the  dangers  from  excess  in  the  use  of  spiritu- 
ous liquors;  furnish  opportunities  for  social  pleasures 
away  from  saloons  by  the  building  of  social  centers,  float- 
ing restaurants,  tea-houses,  and  lecture-halls;  organize 
popular  festivals  and  lectures;  and  establish  houses  of 
retreat  for  drunkards.  These  committees  also  lend 
their  assistance  to  private  societies  of  the  same  nature, 
and  have,  by  lessening  the  use  of  alcohol,  contributed 
much  to  the  safety  and  health  of  the  public. 


Ill 

THE    WORKING-PLACE 

/CONSIDERING  that  the  great  majority  of  wage- 
V^>  earners  spend  at  least  one-third  of  every  twenty- 
four  hours  in  factory,  mill,  or  shop,  the  working-place 
is  of  prime  importance,  not  only  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  employee,  but  also  from  that  of  the  employer. 

In  many  instances  conditions  are  so  far  from  tending 
to  help  the  worker  attain  fullest  efficiency  that  not  much 
can  be  done  except  in  the  way  of  minor  improvements. 
Other  cases  there  are,  however,  where,  by  a  compara- 
tively small  expenditure,  changes  can  easily  be  effected 
that  will  return  the  cost  of  the  alteration  many  fold.  In 
the  .thousands  of  new  industries  which  are  constantly 
springing  up  there  is,  of  course,  no  reason  why  proper 
working  conditions  may  not  be  considered  from  the  very 
start. 

Final  orders  for  the  building  of  any  structure  where  it 
is  intended  that  a  number  of  people  shall  carry  on  their 
work  should  never  be  given  until  all  plans  have  been  gone 
over  carefully  by  some  one  competent  of  judging  condi- 
tions where  they  apply  to  accident  prevention,  hygiene 
in  its  many  forms,  and  the  possibility  of  securing  the 
fullest  efficiency  from  every  employee. 

This  chapter  will  concern  itself  with  presenting  the 
fundamentals  of  safety  in  its  widest  interpretation  in  so 
far  as  they  relate  to  any  place  where  work  is  being  done. 


36  SAFETY 

Detailed  features  of  this  subject  will  appear  'in  Part  IV 
concerning  special  trades  and  occupations. 

In  one  large  plant  where  thousands  are  at  work  and 
where  men  come  from  many  nations  seeking  a  job,  a  sign 
in  six  different  languages  stares  them  in  the  face  to  drive 
home  the  idea  of  safety  at  the  very  outset  of  their 
effort  to  secure  employment: 

To  MEN  SEEKING  EMPLOYMENT 

Unless  you  are  willing  to  be  careful  to  avoid  injury  to  yourself 
and  fellow-workmen,  do  not  ask  for  employment.  We  do  not  want 
careless  men  in  our  employ. 

Lest  any  one  forget  this  obligation  of  personal  caution 
illuminated  signs  are  placed  over  the  entrance-gateways. 
By  day  the  letters  show  white,  and  at  night  they  are 
brought  out  by  incandescent  lamps.  As  these  signs  are 
painted  on  a  portable  sash,  they  can  be  moved  from  one 
gate  to  another,  so  that  the  same  warnings  and  cautions 
are  never  displayed  longer  than  one  week.  Each  sign  is 
shown  in  six  different  languages. 

While  the  management  strives  to  make  every  provision 
for  safety,  there  is  always  the  possibility  that  some  es- 
sential feature  may  be  overlooked.  This  point  is  covered 
by  securing  chance  thoughts  from  the  rank  and  file  of 
the  industrial  army.  Suggestion  boxes  are  placed  at  the 
entrance  -  gates,  with  invitations  to  employees  to  report 
at  once  any  defect  in  the  grounds;  machinery;  manner 
in  which  work  is  being  carried  on;  carelessness  of  other 
employees,  either  in  their  own  or  other  departments;  in 
fact,  anything  that  in  their  opinion  is  dangerous  and 
might  result  in  injury  of  any  kind. 

In  order  that  each  workman  may  feel  that  what  he 
reports  is  a  privileged  communication,  he  is  asked  to  get 


THE    WORKING-PLACE 


37 


in  touch  directly  with  the  superintendent  of  the  depart- 
ment where  the  fault  exists.  The  objects  accomplished 
in  this  way  are:  first,  protection  for  employees;  second, 
co-operation  of  the  best  sort ;  third,  prevention  of  damage 
to  the  company's  property. 

In  many  yards,  where  every  inch  of  space  is  at  a 
premium,  traction  rails  are  set  to  the  narrowest  possible 
clearances.  Where  shop  exits  give  on  yards  through 
which  trains  are  passing  constantly,  warning  signs,  some- 


A  REMINDER  FOR  PERSONAL  SAFETY 

times  painted  on  the  glass  of  the  doors,  enforce  the  need 
of  caution.  Sometimes  reminders  take  the  form  of  an 
iron  bar  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  V,  which  prevents 
even  the  most  careless  from  walking  in  front  of  an  ap- 
proaching train. 

In   studying   an  up-to-date  plant  the   investigation 
notes  viaducts  for  crossing  tracks,  so  that  the  men  are 


SAFETY 


L. 


SIDE-RAILS   AND   STEPS   FOR   THE    SWITCHING   ENGINE 


forced  to  avoid  the  constant  peril  of  shifting  cars  and 
passing  trains.  Where  viaducts  are  impossible,  tunnels 
are  provided. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  have  tracks  crossing  the  ap- 
proaches to  a  yard,  and  the  wooden  fence  would  prevent 
the  engineers  from  seeing  any  one  coming  toward  the 
track,  this  fence  should  be  replaced  by  one  of  wire,  which 
is  just  as  effective,  cheaper,  and  safer.  Of  course,  there 
should  be  safety  -  gates  indicated  with  a  red  lantern  at 
night  wherever  the  road  crosses  the  track. 

Wherever  there  are  vent  pipes  in  the  yard,  they  should 
be  carried  to  a  height  sufficient  to  allow  the  steam  to 
escape,  without  any  possibility  that  the  engineer's  vision 
may  be  obscured  by  vapor.  Only  too  many  serious  acci- 
dents have  occurred  through  neglect  of  this  seemingly 
trivial  point. 


THE    WORKING-PLACE 


39 


Frequently  trainmen  on  the  footboard  of  the  switch- 
engines,  desiring  to  get  into  the  cab  or  to  remove  the 
tank  cap  when  taking  water,  will  climb  over  the  tank 
rather  than  get  off  the  engine.  Modern  practice  provides 
steps  and  railings  over  the  slope  of  the  tank. 

Men  are  caught  in  the  frog  of  a  switch  more  frequently 
than  is  supposed.  Fatalities  resulting  from  this  kind  of 
an  accident  can  easily  be  prevented  by  means  of  pieces 
of  skelp-iron  fastened  securely,  making  it  impossible  for 
any  one  to  get  a  foot  caught  in  a  frog  or  between  the 
rails. 

While  the  practice  of  making  a  flying  switch  is  generally 
prohibited,  many  men  do  so.  With  the  old  type  of  switch- 
throw  operating  at  right 
angles  to  the  track,  the 
man's  body  is  brought  into 
dangerous  proximity  to  the 
engine  or  car ;  with  the 
switch  -  throw  parallel  to 
the  track,  as  is  the  case  in 
the  yards  of  the  modern 
plant,  the  man  is  not  com- 
pelled to  get  in  close  to 
the  rail,  and  so  remains 
outside  the  danger  zone. 

To  protect  men  working 
on  or  near  cars  undergoing 
repairs,  loading  or  unloading,  and  also  to  indicate  unsafe 
tracks,  it  is  well  to  have  signals  clamped  to  the  rail.  To 
prevent  any  one  other  than  the  authorized  person  placing 
it  in  position  it  is  padlocked.  The  lantern  shows  a  light 
at  night,  while  by  day  the  target  disk  shows  a  circle  painted 
red  with  an  outer  ring  of  white. 


A   SAFETY   DEVICE   FOR   THE   FROG 
OF   THE   SWITCH 


40  SAFETY 

Sometimes  in  transferring  a  load  to  or  from  a  flat-car 
by  means  of  hoisting-chain  the  drag  of  the  load  will  cause 
the  car  to  move  forward  or  tilt.  Men  standing  by  are 
liable  to  have  their  toes  or  feet  crushed  before  they  really 


THROWING   THE    SWITCH    PARALLEL    TO   THE   TRACK,  A   SAFEGUARD 

have  time  to  jump  out  of  the  way.  A  simple  but  effec- 
tive safeguard  in  such  cases  consists  of  a  steel  bar  bent 
at  an  angle  and  fastened  by  drop  pieces  to  t'he  frame  of 
the  car. 

Grounds  and  premises  about  the  working-place  are 
now  receiving  careful  thought  from  industrialists,  who 
realize  that  humane  considerations  do  not  stand  alone, 
but  are  transmutable  into  well-earned  cash,  measured 
by  an  increased  output. 

In  this  connection  might  be  mentioned  the  provision 


THE    WORKING-PLACE  41 

of  good  roadways  tending  to  minimize  the  accidents  which 
occur  constantly  to  men  who  in  trying  to  take  short  cuts 
to  and  from  their  work  are  generally  liable  to  accident 
through  the  falling  of  piled  material  or  unguarded  cross- 
ings. Minor  precautionary  measures  also  should  not  be 
neglected,  such  as  leading  live-steam  exhausts  into  metal- 
covered  pits,  in  some  instances  putting  locked  screens 
over  stairways,  and  many  other  points  of  a  similar  char- 
acter, almost  too  numerous  to  mention,  but  which  by 


A  LONG    PIPE    PERMITS    STEAM    TO    ESCAPE    WITHOUT    OBSCURING   THE 
VISION   OF   THE   ENGINEER 

careful  thought  and  attention  may  very  easily  be  worked 
out. 

All  platforms  five  feet  or>*nore  in  height  should  have 
a  railing.  Pipe-iron  js  preferable  when  possible,  and  toe- 
guards  at  least  six  rnches  high  will  prevent  tools  or  ma- 
terials from  being  kicked  or  pushed  off  on  workmen  below. 
This  requirement  applies  equally  to  inside  conditions. 


42  SAFETY 

Flooring  should  be  laid  level  and  kept  so,  particularly 
where  there  are  sharp  turns  and  steps.  All  such  danger- 
points  should  be  suitably  illuminated.  Stairways,  even 
under  the  best  conditions,  are  such  fertile  sources  of  acci- 
dents that  the  least  neglect  multiplies  the  danger  many 
times.  Inspectors  should  make  it  their  business  to  see 
that  every  stairway  under  their  supervision  has  ample 
width  of  tread,  well  secured  hand-rails  on  both  sides ;  that 
every  step  is  perfectly  firm;  that  no  stairway  is  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  provide  a  chance  for  accident  of  any  kind 
at  the  turns;  that  some  approved  type  of  safety-tread  is 
installed  where  slippery  conditions  are  probably  to  be 
encountered;  and  that  provision  is  made  for  keeping  off 
such  stairways  all  who  have  no  business  there. 

Material  carelessly  piled,  so  that  odds  and  ends  stick 
out  in  all  directions,  is  another  source  of  accidents.  The 
contrast  which  is  brought  out  by  an  orderly  and  systematic 
arrangement  of  material  becomes  evident,  not  only  from 
a  consideration  of  safety  and  appearance,  but  also  from 
the  standpoint  of  increased  output.  Where  system  of 
this  kind  prevails  with  piled  material,  natural  passage- 
ways are  always  provided,  allowing  not  only  instant  access 
to  every  individual  piece,  but  also  the  free  circulation  of 
men  and  material. 

When  piling  metal,  especially  when  the  individual 
pieces  are  in  the  form  of  bars,  a  small  strip  of  metal  curved 
up  at  each  end  holds  the  stock  in  position  and  eliminates 
any  danger  of  slipping.  Economy  also  indorses  this 
device,  for  more  material  can  thus  be  piled  in  the  same 
space. 

Problems  of  safeguarding  boilers  are  largely  dependent 
on  expert  inspection  by  regularly  constituted  organiza- 
tions; but  there  are  many  minor  details  which  an  en- 


THE    WORKING-PLACE 


43 


SAFE   METHOD   OF   STACKING   METAL   BARS 

lightened  management  can  provide.  It  is  perfectly  pos- 
sible to  maintain  a  system  of  walks  or  runways  to  give 
convenient  access  to  overhead  valves  and  water-columns. 
Walks  should  go  from  boiler  to  boiler,  with  suitable  plat- 
forms at  individual  valves,  from  which  they  can  be  safely 
operated  or  repaired.  These  passageways  should  be  well 
lighted  and  free  from  breaks  or  obstructions  which  might 
interfere  with  their  use.  In  every  case  they  should  be 
equipped  with  hand-rails  not  less  than  thirty-six  inches 
high,  with  two  horizontal  members,  and  toe-guards  not 
less  than  four  inches  high. 

Walks  and  stairways  should  be  of  suitable  steel  con- 
struction, checkered  steel  plate  or  grids  being  used  for 


44  SAFETY 

flooring,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  water-columns,  where 
it  may  be  advisable  always  to  have  the  grid-iron  construc- 
tion, in  order  to  provide  a  clear  view  of  the  water-column 
from  the  boiler-room  floor.  Wherever  possible  railed 
stairways  are  to  be  used  in  preference  to  ladders.  Means 
of  access  should  be  provided  for  overhead  walks  at  both 
ends  of  each  line  of  boilers,  and  in  a  large  plant  one  or 
two  intermediate  stairways  are  desirable. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  securing  good 
illumination  throughout  the  boiler-house.  Unless  the 
illumination  is  exceptionally  good,  it  is  advisable  to  have 
at  least  one  light  at  each  of  the  stairways  leading  to  over- 
head platforms,  particularly  at  the  upper  end  of  the  main 
stairways. 

An  excellent  plan  is  the  provision  of  red  incandescent 
lamps  suspended  near  important  cut-off  valves  or  branches 
from  steam  mains  or  headers,  to  facilitate  locating  the 
same  in  case  of  emergency.  A  protected  light,  preferably 
an  incandescent  lamp,  should  be  suspended  near  each 
water-column. 

In  cleaning  flue  dust  out  of  boilers,  experience  shows 
that  it  is  safer  for  two  men  to  work  together,  one  remain- 
ing outside  all  the  time  in  a  position  to  see  the  man  in- 
side and  give  him  needed  assistance.  Of  course,  the  men 
can  take  turns  in  cleaning  and  guard  duty. 

In  planning  the  installation  or  rearrangement  of  ma- 
chinery, ample  space  must  be  provided  to  avoid  the  com- 
mon fault  of  overcrowding.  With  only  a  narrow  space 
between  machines,  the  worker  is  compelled  to  run  the 
constant  risk  of  being  caught  by  some  moving  part. 
Sufficient  space  for  the  machine  necessarily  means  suffi- 
cient space  £or  the  operator.  By  sufficient  space  is  meant 
not  only  merely  enough  "elbow  room,"  but  space  enough 


THE    WORKING-PLACE 


45 


so  that  the  operator  feels  fully  at  ease  and  capable  of 
turning  out  better  work  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed. 

Experiments  have  proved  conclusively  that  any  ad- 
ditional sum  that  must  be  charged  to  rental  because  of 
this  arrangement  is  almost  negligible  when  compared 
with  the  savings  that  may  be  grouped  under  lessened 
accidents,  higher  working  speed,  and  maintained  general 
efficiency  of  the  worker.  The  case  of  spinning-frames 
provides  illustration.  Here,  where  woman  operators  are 
the  rule,  the  hair  is  always  in  danger  of  being  caught  on 
the  upper  rail  of  the  spindle  when  leaning  over  to  reach 
the  lower  rail.  The  skirt  is  also  liable  to  be  caught  on 
the  lower  rail  directly  behind.  It  is,  of  course,  foolish 


DANGER  IP 

I  MAN  IN  BOILER 


GUARD  FOR  LOCKING  STEAM  VALVE  OF  BOILER 

to  advance  any  argument  that  an  operator  of  this  type 
is  not  perfectly  aware  of  the  danger  which  threatens  every 
working  moment.  And  even  while  it  is  quite  possible 
that  no  accidents  may  ever  occur  in  any  particular  case, 
it  is  certain  that  consciously  or  unconsciously  every 
operator  is  giving  up  to  this  factor  in  her  daily  life  a  defi- 
nite part  of  her  energy — and  it  is  her  energy  for  which 
her  employers  pay  a  certain  sum  every  Saturday.  Mul- 
tiply this  small  individual  daily  loss  by  the  number  of 


46  SAFETY 

workers  in  almost  any  of  the  large  mills,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  the  dollars  and  cents  represented  by  energy 
total  up  a  sum  at  which  one  may  well  marvel. 

Protection  from  the  jaws  of  various  cutting  tools, 
presses,  punches,  and  stamping  machines  can  only  be 
fully  afforded  by  guards  so  arranged  that  the  power  is 
shut  off  automatically  the  instant  hands  or  ringers  come 
within  the  danger  zone. 

Among  the  first  steps  toward  accident  prevention  in 
all  factories,  new  or  old,  is  inclosing  belts  and  gears,  to 
prevent  stumbling  or  falling  into  moving  parts.  These 
guards  may  be  of  wood  or  metal,  and  in  the  form  of  a 
box  or  cover  that  can  be  drawn  around  the  gearing,  a 
screen  of  wire  mesh,  or  a  lattice  of  iron  rods;  the  best 
type  is  the  expanded  metal  mesh,  which  gives  a  view  at 
all  times  of  the  moving  parts  and  also  shows  any  accumu- 
lation of  dirt  which  would  interfere  with  the  effective 
operation  of  the  machine. 

The  rapid  extension  of  the  use  of  electricity  throughout 
the  industrial  world  has  had  a  most  beneficial  effect  on 
the  safety  of  the  workman.  Before  the  advantages  of 
electric  power  were  realized  workmen  were  overburdened 
and  handicapped,  owing  to  the  fact  that  manual  and 
foot  power  had  up  to  that  time  found  no  substitute. 
The  artisan  and  the  small  industrial  worker,  thanks  to 
the  electric  motor,  now  benefit  by  the  development  in 
electrical  progress. 

All  sewing-machines  were  formerly  operated  by  foot- 
power,  an  arrangement  which  not  only  greatly  limited 
the  capacity  of  the  operator,  but  broke  down  health  and 
sapped  vitality.  These  machines  in  most  instances  are 
now  driven  by  electricity,  increasing  the  output  of  the 
operator  and,  consequently,  his  wages. 


THE    WORKING-PLACE  47 

When  a  shop  is  driven  by  a  single  prime  mover,  the 
power  is  transmitted  necessarily  to  the  machines  through 
the  medium  of  shafting  and  numberless  belts.  A  most 
noticeable  defect  shown  by  the  swiftly  moving  belts  is 
the  clouds  of  dust  which  are  continually  agitated,  filling 
the  whole  shop.  Many  of  the  vocational  diseases,  which 
result  from  the  workman's  breathing  in  the  dust  of  the 
product,  are  directly  attributable  to  this  cause. 

As  is  pointed  out  by  Arthur  Williams,  of  the  New  York 
Edison  Company: 

Electric  drive  has  so  altered  this  condition  of  affairs  that  now  it  is 
customary  to  equip  each  machine  or  tool  with  a  separate  motor,  which 
may  be  an  integral  part  of  the  machine  itself.  Belting  is  thus  wholly 
dispensed  with.  Better  working  conditions  are  also  made  possible 
due  to  this  elimination  of  belting,  for  the  reason  that  a  machine  may 
be  so  located  that  the  best  natural  or  artificial  illumination  can  be 
realized.  As  a  perfect  sequence  of  the  operation,  due  to  this  flexibility 
of  location,  much  handling  and  rehandling  of  heavy  burdens  can  be 
dispensed  with. 

A  most  important  factor  in  the  safety  and  welfare  of  the  employee 
is  to  be  found  in  this  very  elimination.  A  large  percentage  of  indus- 
trial accidents  has  been  caused  by  a  workman  coming  in  contact  with 
or  becoming  entangled  in  such  belting.  This  is  not  possible  when  the 
motor  becomes  a  part  of  the  machine  itself,  for  the  power-transmitting 
devices  may  be  entirely  inclosed.  The  possibility  of  controlling  a 
large  machine  from  several  different  points  has  also  been  instrumental 
in  preventing  large  numbers  of  accidents.  Many  large  machines  are 
now  equipped  with  a  series  of  push-buttons  located  on  different  parts 
whereby  the  machine  can  be  stopped  instantly. 

A  common  cause  of  accidents  is  due  to  the  small  bits 
of  steel  liable  to  fly  off  from  the  "mushroom"  heads  of 
hammers,  sledges,  bars,  and  other  tools,  causing  injuries 
to  the  eye  and  face;  daily  inspection  of  such  tools  to  see 
that  they  are  "dressed"  is  the  only  safe  method  of 
avoiding  this  danger. 

Signs,  warning  against  danger,  to  be  most  effective, 
should  contain  some  device  or  symbol,  making  the  danger 


48 


SAFETY 


evident  at  a  glance.  In  other  cases  the  briefest  possible 
text  should  be  added  for  any  needful  explanation.  The 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  has  adopted  a  red  ball 
on  a  white  ground  as  a  universal  warning-sign  for  the 
workman  to  be  careful.  For  foreign  workmen,  who 
neither  speak  nor  think  in  English,  a  sign  must  emphasize 


SAFETY   CLAW   FOR   WRECKERS 


the  warning.  It  is  common  in  Continental  shops  to 
paint  red  the  dangerous  part  of  the  machine,  thus  arresting 
the  attention  of  the  work  to  that  point. 

As  a  proper  amount  of  light  is  one  of  the  essentials  of 


THE    WORKING-PLACE  49 

safety  and  health,  the  working-place  should  have  the 
maximum  amount  of  window  space.  In  one  of  the  most 
successfully  operated  factories  in  this  country  four-fifths 
of  the  wall  space  is  occupied  by  windows. 

Thanks  to  the  advance  in  iron  and  steel  construction, 
it  is  perfectly  possible  to  build  structures  that  are  nearly 
all  windows.  And  while  it  is  often  difficult  to  remodel 
an  old  plant,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  make  a  few 
structural  alterations  in  the  interest  of  improved  illumi- 
nation. 

Of  equal  importance  to  light  in  the  working-place  is  the 
problem  of  the  adequacy  and  purity  of  the  air.  So  essen- 
tial is  this  factor  in  every  plant  that  it  will  be  specially 
discussed  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 


PART    II 
DANGER   ZONES 


IV 

YARDS,    WALKS,    RAILINGS,    AND    HOISTS 

A  MAN  going  directly  from  a  dark  building  into  the 
brighter  light  of  outdoors  or  stepping  out  into  high 
winds  instinctively  lowers  his  face.  If  there  is  no  guard 
at  hand  he  is  likely  to  step  directly  into  some  dangerous 
position,  such  as  into  the  path  of  a  moving  train.  Even 
with  all  conditions  favorable  to  sight  and  sound  men 
with  minds  upon  something  else  often  take  a  fatal  step 
when  their  attention  is  not  arrested  in  time. 

When  a  siding  runs  between  buildings  a  gate  locked  in 
place  forces  one  to  turn  and  face  parallel  to  the  track  for 
a  step  or  two  before  crossing.  The  key  for  unlocking  the 
gate  for  passage  of  wheeled  vehicles  should  only  be  in 
the  hands  of  responsible  persons  who  will  open  it  for 
cause  and  can  be  relied  on  to  close  and  lock  it  afterward. 
A  gate  also  prevents  men  from  rushing  out  incautiously 
at  quitting-time. 

The  increasing  use  of  underground  conduits  or  subways 
for  carrying  pipe  and  electric  systems  compels  the  intro- 
duction at  frequent  intervals  of  manholes  and  hatchways 
for  access  to  the  valves  or  switches  controlling  distribu- 
tion from  mains  to  branches.  While  all  such  openings 
unprotected  are  a  menace,  they  are  particularly  dangerous 
at  night  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  or  when 
a  high  wind  or  rain  causes  passers-by  to  lower  their  heads. 

For  square  openings  in  a  yard  a  simple  construction  is  a 


54 


SAFETY 


SAFETY   COVER   WITH    SIDE   BARS   FOR   MANHOLES 

guard  of  round  iron  curved  so  that  it  rises  easily  through 
staples  as  the  hatch  is  lifted.  The  automatic  character 
of  this  device  is  more  certain  and  effective  than  a  portable 
guard,  such  as  is  used  in  street  or  sidewalk  openings  and 
which  often  is  not  set  up  when  the  time  to  be  spent  in 
the  open  pit  is  short. 

An  empty  car  on  a  siding  is  often  the  source  of  two 
dangers.  If  some  one  forgets  to  set  the  brakes  it  may  be 
blown  along  by  the  wind  until  it  reaches  a  danger-point. 
At  night  it  may  be  run  into  by  the  rear  end  of  a  shifting 
train  because  it  shows  no  light. 

A  combination  bumper  and  light-carrier  meets  both 
requirements.  The  wedge,  or  inclined  plane,  resting 
upon  the  upper  face  of  the  rail  will  go  under  the  wheel  as 
it  rolls,  and  the  car  will  be  locked  in  place  from  motion 


YARDS,   WALKS,   RAILINGS,   HOISTS      55 

by  the  wind  in  either  direction.  The  lantern-carrier  will 
be  visible  in  the  direction  from  which  the  danger  comes. 
In  the  standard  requirements  for  safety  by  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation  all  platforms  five  feet  or  more 
above  the  ground  must  be  railed  and  equipped  with  a 
stairway  or  stationary  steel  ladder.  Platforms  and  walks 
ten  feet  or  more  above  the  ground  must  have  a  toe- 
board  at  the  base  of  the  railing  at  least  six  inches  high. 


RAILED   PLATFORM   AND  TOE-GUARDS 


All  scaffolds,  when  higher  than  ten  feet  from  the  ground, 
should  be  railed.  On  swinging  scaffolds  this  railing  may 
consist  of  cable  or  rope. 

Concerning  the  planking  of  swinging  scaffolds,  it  is 


56  SAFETY 

always  better  that  they  cover  the  entire  space  of  the 
supporting  rope  and  be  well  secured  to  prevent  the 
planks  slipping.  A  belt  should  be  placed  through  plank 
outside  of  the  stringer,  and  the  planking  of  scaffolds  in 
general  should  be  properly  braced  and  spiked  for  greater 
security.  •••>; 

Individual  responsibility  is  the  great  desideratum;  this 
can  only  be  secured  when  every  workman  sees  for  himself 
that  the  scaffolds  and  its  supports  are  properly  built. 
Of  course,  sufficient  time  should  be  allowed  employees  to 
make  this  examination  and  satisfy  themselves  that  it  is 
safe. 

Operating  platforms  or  floors  should  be  equipped  with 
checker-plates,  woven  steel  fabric,  rivet-heads,  or  other 
approved  non-slipping  surface.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
equip  stairways  with  hand-rails,  but  they  must  be  kept 
free  from  nails  and  splinters.  Stairs  should  not  be  built 
at  a  sharper  angle  than  50  degrees;  in  other  cases  ladders 
should  be  used.  The  sum  of  the  riser  and  tread  should 
equal  about  seventeen  and  one-half  inches. 

The  wide  experience  in  safety  standardization  gathered 
by  such  a  corporation  as  the  United  States  Steel  points 
that  in  general  all  railings  should  be  at  least  three  feet 
six  inches  high  with  an  intermediate  rail  of  equal  dis- 
tance between  top  rail  and  floor.  They  should  be  made 
of  metal  and  when  ten  feet  or  more  above  the  floor  should 
have  a  toe-board  at  least  six  inches  high  at  the  base. 
Angle-posts  should  be  chamfered. 

Pipe  railings  should  be  made  of  not  less  than  one-and- 
one-quarter-inch  pipe.  Angle-railing  should  be  made  of 
not  less  than  2  x  2  x  y^  inch  angle-iron. 

The  careful  manager  provides  that  all  exhaust-pipes 
lead  into  pits  closed  by  metal  covers.  This  provision 


YARDS,   WALKS,   RAILINGS,   HOISTS      57 

should  be  enforced,  particularly  in  the  case  of  all  exhaust- 
pipes  within  seven  feet  from  the  ground  or  whenever 
they  are  in  such  a  position  as  to  endanger  the  passer-by. 
It  is  preferable  that  exhaust  -  pipes  from  machinery 


RAILED   WALK   FOR   ARC   LAMP   TRIMMERS 

should  be  run  outside  of  the  building  extended  above  the 
roof. 

Efficiency  takes  account  of  clean  windows  and  sky- 
lights, and  in  turn  the  safety  engineer  insists  that  for 
washing  windows  on  the  outside  all  cleaners  be  provided 
with  safety  belts. 

For  cleaning  windows  in  the  bays  of  shops  and  gal- 
leries the  management  can,  of  course,  provide  properly 


58  SAFETY 

equipped  cages  running  on  tracks  or  runways,  railed  and 
toe-boarded,  as  such  installation  can  be  counted  upon 
to  safeguard  the  cleaners  from  traveling-cranes  or  other 
moving  machinery. 

The  prudent  workman  will  always  have  his  hands  free 
in  going  up  and  down  ladders,  hoisting  materials  or  tools 
by  rope,  and  the  works'  manager  who  cares  to  cover  every 
possible  point,  provides  a  cage  or  screening  around  the 
ladder,  which  prevents  any  one  from  falling,  even  when 
hands  or  feet  slip  off  the  rungs. 

In  many  plants  there  is  a  standing  rule:  "Never  try  to 
climb  a  ladder  without  the  free  use  of  both  hands.  If 
material  is  to  be  handled,  use  a  rope." 

Foremen  and  others  having  workmen  under  them  can 
promote  the  interests  of  the  management  by  taking  care 
that  loose  material  is  not  allowed  to  remain  on  any  roof 
where  it  might  fall  or  be  blown  off  with  possible  serious 
injury  resulting. 

It  is  always  good  yard  practice  to  insist  that  all  passage- 
ways and  gangways  be  kept  smooth  and  in  good  repair, 
free  from  any  obstruction  which  might  cause  a  stumble 
or  fall. 

In  the  same  way  there  is  always  danger  in  allowing 
passageways  to  become  crowded.  They  should  be  suffi- 
ciently wide  to  insure  safety  in  an  emergency  beyond  the 
regular  course  of  work. 

After  the  completion  of  a  piece  of  work  tools  or  ma- 
terial should  never  be  left  lying  around.  Temporary 
scaffolds  should  always  be  torn  down  as  soon  as  they  have 
served  their  purpose. 

It  is  bad  practice  for  employees  to  search  through 
scrap  for  tools,  as  there  is  danger  of  being  struck  by  cranes 
and  crane-loads.  All  scrap  should  be  kept  back  at  least 


YARDS,   WALKS,   RAILINGS,   HOISTS      59 


three  feet  from  the  track,  and  so  piled  that  none  will  fall 
onto  the  rails. 

By  night  and  day  flags  should  be  at  the  end  of  all  cars 
where  men  are  working  on  or  around  the  cars.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  loading 
material  so  that  no  portion 
will  project  over  the  sides  or 
fall  off  in  transit.  Weight  of 
the  load  should  be  properly 
distributed  on  the  cars,  and 
large  pieces  braced  to  pre- 
vent shifting. 

No  one  should  work  on 
cars,  or  clean  tracks  around 
cars,  where  he  cannot  be  seen 
by  an  engine  crew. 

For  the  protection  of  em- 
ployees   working    under    or 
about  cars  the  National  Tube 
Company  has  devised  a  de- 
railing track  target,  for  day 
or  night  use,  which  can  be  se- 
cured to  the  track.     The  lan- 
tern is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  disk  to  show  light  in 
both  directions  at  night ;   to  prevent  unauthorized  re- 
moval, the  derailer  is  padlocked  to  the  track. 

It  is  found  to  be  safe  practice  to  notify  the  foreman 
that  a  workman  has  gone  into  a  bin  to  poke  down  the  ore ; 
another  precaution  is  for  the  man  to  have  a  rope  from 
above  tied  around  his  body.  When  trimming  piles  of 
ore,  the  pick-men  should  work  to  the  side,  and  not  in 
front  of  them,  thereby  avoiding  the  danger  of  sliding  ore. 
Excavations  should  be  protected  by  barriers  during  the 


TRACK  TARGET 


60  SAFETY 

day,  and  at  night  by  lights.  If  there  is  the  slightest 
risk  of  a  cave-in  they  should  be  shored  up.  All  post- 
holes  and  other  excavations  ought  to  be  covered  or 
protected  when  leaving  them,  or  when  quitting  work 
for  the  day. 

In  unloading  cars  the  material  should  be  piled  at  least 
four  and  one-half  feet  from  the  rail.  If  it  is  impossible 
to  do  this,  place  a  warning-sign  at  each  end  of  the  pile: 
"No  clearance  for  man  on  side  of  car."  Any  material 
which  may  fall  upon  or  alongside  the  track  must  be 
immediately  cleaned  up.  It  is  dangerous  to  walk  along- 
side of  cars  when  material  is  being  unloaded.  All  railroad 
crossings  should  be  planked  over. 


TOE-GUARD   FOR   FLAT   CARS 

The  application  of  electric  power  has  made  the  big 
traveling-crane  a  giant  of  usefulness;  but  its  strength 
must  be  carefully  watched,  else  it  becomes  a  menace. 
Sometimes  the  thoughtless  workman  will  rest  hands  or 
arms  on  the  track,  forgetting  that  the  passage  of  the  crane 
is  swift  and  noiseless,  and  he  is  taken  unawares.  To 
prevent  this  type  of  accident  the  crane  may  by  supplied 
with  a  little  pilot  brush  of  wire,  so  as  to  push  off  without 
injury  hand  or  arm  obstructions.  For  the  same  reason 
it  is  good  safety  practice  to  run  a  line  of  wire  fence  along 


YARDS,   WALKS,   RAILINGS,   HOISTS      61 

the  bays  of  the  shop,  to  keep  any  one  from  getting  in  the 
track  of  the  crane. 

In  former  days  the  craneman  got  into  his  cab  as  best  he 
could  by  means  of  the  girder  or  a  wooden  ladder.  To-day 
the  safety  engineer  provides  a  flight  of  railed  steps  with 
a  platform,  so  that  the  cab  can  be  entered  in  perfect 
safety.  Even  there  the  danger  is  by  no  means  past;  as, 
for  example,  in  a  steel-plant  should  there  be  a  spill  from 
the  ladle  carrying  the  molten  metal,  although  the  cab 
might  be  distant  some  sixty  feet  from  the  floor,  the  heat 
is  so  intense  from  the  spreading  molten  iron  that  in  some 
cases  the  operator  has  been  literally  cooked  to  death. 
To  protect  him  from  this  peril  an  iron  cage  lined  with 
asbestos  is  built  on  the  cab  for  a  refuge. 

The  superintendent  knows  that  among  the  dangers  to 
be  guarded  against  in  connection  with  gantries  is  the 
peril  from  derailment  through  obstructions  on  the  track; 
accordingly,  he  recommends  that  the  supporting  and 
driving  trucks  be  equipped  with  adequate  fenders  to 
throw  off  heavy  objects,  and  act  as  a  pilot  should  human 
beings  get  in  the  way. 

To  prevent  the  dangers  raised  by  the  stress  of  high 
winds  upon  the  elevator  structure,  the  gantry  is  fitted 
with  rail  grips  and  clamps  which  can  be  set  and  tripped 
by  hand.  These,  of  course,  reinforce  the  braking  action 
to  prevent  the  crane  from  moving  upon  its  runway  when 
the  wind  blows  and  steady  the  crane  from  undue  motion 
when  it  is  at  work.  Chains  furnish  additional  safety  in 
very  high  winds. 

In  the  case  of  handling  fine  material,  such  as  coal  and 
ashes,  the  driving-gear  can  be  prevented  from  falling 
substances  by  inclosing  the  mechanism. 

When  cranes  travel  the  whole  length  of  a  shop,  between 


62 


SAFETY 


end  walls,  the  chances  of  derailment  from  overrunning  are 
nil;  but  when  the  runway  stops  at  any  considerable 
distance  from  the  end  wall,  there  is  always  the  possibility 
that  failure  of  the  braking  device  or  careless  operation 
may  cause  the  crane  to  overrun.  This  risk  can  be  ob- 
viated by  means  of  a  bumping-block  of  heavy  springs 
and  steel  tie-rods  set  up  on  the  end  of  the  girder  in  such 
a 'way  as  to  take  up  the  impact. 

With  a  safety  rim  for  the  crane-hook  there  is  no  excuse 
for  the  workman  getting  his  hands  in  the  throat  when 


FENDER  FOR  GANTRY  CRANE 


adjusting  it  to  a  chain  sling.  The  rim  also  allows  better 
guidance  in  all  directions,  thus  making  for  convenience 
as  well  as  safety. 


YARDS,   WALKS,   RAILINGS,   HOISTS      63 

Whenever  practicable  it  is  always  safer  that  slings 
used  on  hoists  should  be  made  of  wire  cable  instead  of 
chain,  as  the  former  gives  warning  of  weakening  by  broken 
strands. 

The  only  safeguards  against  the  exposure  of  crane 
chains  to  a  continuous  action  of  radiant  heat  effecting 
molecular  changes  in  the  metal 
are  periodic  inspection  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  annealing,  and 
rigid  renewals  of  weakened  links. 

In  the  case  of  freight  eleva- 
tors it  may  not  always  be  pos- 
sible to  have  the  elevator  con- 
stantly in  charge  of  an  operator 
whose  sole  duty  is  to  run  the 
elevator,  although  this  should 
be  the  practice  wherever  the 
use  of  the  elevator  is  frequent 
enough  to  warrant  it.  However, 
it  is  advisable  wherever  practi- 
cable to  designate  one  man  to 
run  it  in  addition  to  his  oth- 
er regular  duties.  When  the 
conditions  impose  the  necessity  of  permitting  a  number 
of  men  to  run  the  elevator,  those  receiving  permission 
should  be  as  few  as  possible  and  chosen  for  their  careful- 
ness and  competency.  The  indiscriminate  use  of  an  ele- 
vator by  a  number  of  persons  should  be  prohibited. 
Statistics  show  that  the  greater  number  of  elevator  acci- 
dents are  due  to  the  carelessness  of  the  elevator  operator. 

The  Inland  Steel  Company  finds  it  good  policy  to  insist 
that  all  elevators  used  for  any  purpose  should  be  pro- 
vided with  automatic  closing  gates  at  least  six  feet  high 


CRANE  HOOK  WITH  SAFETY  RIM 


64  SAFETY 

at  each  floor,  platform,  or  scaffold,  and  also  with  a 
danger-sign.  A  simple  precautionary  measure  is  a  signal 
system  indicating  the  movement  of  the  elevators. 

Where  electric  power  is  used  to  operate  elevators  a 
switch  should  be  provided  on  each  floor,  platform,  or 
scaffold  to  cut  off  all  power  so  that  the  elevator  cannot  be 
moved  until  every  one  is  ready.  Where  the  cage  travels 
past  beams  and  floors  they  should  be  beveled  and  sheeted 
on  the  under  side  to  prevent  injury  to  the  workmen. 

A  wise  expenditure  is  incasing  the  sides  and  top  of 
freight  elevators  with  wire  mesh.  A  small  ladder  is  also 
frequently  helpful  in  getting  to  the  top  of  the  car. 


CUTTING  AND   GRINDING   TOOLS 

THERE  is  a  particular  need  for  making  safe  presses 
and  stamping-machines,  for  they  are  frequently  the 
cause  of  serious  accidents.  Investigation  disclosed  that 
a  certain  brass  shop,  in  which  203  women  were  employed, 
showed  an  accident  rate  of  26.6  per  cent.,  while  another 
shop  employing  129  women  showed  an  accident  rate  of 
11.63  per  cent.  Both  of  these  were  what  may  be  called 
high-class  factories;  but  in  the  second  mentioned  machines 
had  been  chosen  with  the  least  hazard,  and  even  then 
additional  safeguards  had  been  provided. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  difference  in  safety  percentage 
caused  by  attention  to  a  single  detail  is  shown  in  a  com- 
parison of  two  factories  using  nearly  the  same  number 
of  presses  and  producing  almost  the  same  kind  of  work. 
In  one  a  safety  device  was  used  which  was  not  found  in 
the  other.  In  the  first  in  one  year  out  of  187  women 
employed  only  3.21  per  cent,  had  been  injured;  in  the 
other,  not  using  the  safeguard,  out  of  150  women  employed 
I3-33  Per  cent,  suffered  accidents. 

Another  striking  contrast  was  found  between  two  firms 
manufacturing  hardware;  one  firm  occupied  a  rather  old 
building  in  which,  owing  to  the  low  ceilings  of  some  of 
the  stories,  the  shafting  ran  too  near  the  workers.  The 
conditions  with  regard  to  revolving  parts  of  machines, 
unprotected  belts,  and  stamping-presses  were  dangerous. 


66  SAFETY 

The  i, 006  men  employed  by  this  firm  had  an  accident 
rate  of  17.49  per  cent.,  while  the  138  women  employed 
had  a  rate  of  17.39  Per  cent.  The  other  factory  had 
better  buildings  and  paid  more  attention  to  safety  de- 
vices. Among  the  2,488  men  employed  the  accident 
rate  was  3.22  per  cent.,  while  among  the  500  women 
workers  it  fell  to  1.40  per  cent.! 

An  example  of  what  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  safety 
for  workers  is  shown  by  one  firm  solving  the  problem 
of  press  accidents.  They  studied  the  situation  and  dis- 
covered that  nearly  fifty  changes  could  be  made  in  the 
machines  to  make  them  safer  and  in  some  cases  more 
productive. 

A  curious  fact  in  connection  with  workers  on  presses 
is  that  where  men  and  women  are  working  under  prac- 
tically the  same  conditions  the  accident  rate  for  the 
women  is  almost  always  higher  than  for  the  men.  In 
eighteen  establishments  recently  studied  it  was  found 
that  for  the  whole  group  the  accident  rate  of  the  women 
workers  was  almost  one-third  greater  than  that  of  the 
men  workers.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  among 
press  operators  women  run  greater  risks  than  men. 
Among  these  workers  the  machine  was  the  principal 
source  of  danger,  although  the  men  showed  a  slightly 
larger  proportion  of  injuries  due  to  the  use  of  tools,  belts, 
gearing,  and  falls;  but  the  accidents  to  the  women  were 
almost  entirely  through  the  use  of  the  machine. 

It  would  seem  that  women  are  more  careful  than  men, 
generally,  less  given  to  removing  the  safeguards  which 
are  provided,  and  more  attentive  to  their  surroundings; 
in  fact,  displaying  a  tendency  to  avoid  the  possibility  of 
accident  when  working  on  machines  known  to  be  dan- 
gerous. But  in  the  matter  of  taking  risks  women  are 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      67 

much  more  reckless  than  men.  "Taking  risks"  includes 
a  number  of  foolish  actions,  such  as  cleaning  a  machine 
while  in  motion,  attempting  to  adjust  screws  and  belts 
under  the  same  condition,  experimenting  with  another 
person's  machine,  and  disregarding  orders. 

The  most  important  cause  of  accidents  on  press  work 
to  both  men  and  women  is  found  to  be  in  connection  with 
the  material,  either  in  inserting,  removing,  or  clearing 
away  the  scrap  which  brought  their  fingers  too  dan- 
gerously close  to  the  descending  die.  Perhaps  one  reason 
why  women  have  more  accidents  through  this  cause  than 
the  men  is  that  the  men  operate  the  heavier  and  slower 
machines,  while  women  workers  are  given  the  lighter  and 
more  rapid  ones.  But  in  almost  all  cases  safety  devices 
can  do  away  with  the  accidents. 

The  danger  attaching  to  the  crank-driven  press  in 
punching  or  drawing  shops  with  working  dies  receiving 
the  metal  to  be  acted  upon,  is  lest  the  fingers  or  hand 
of  the  operator  be  caught  between  the  operating  edges, 
either  from  a  careless  movement  as  the  ram  descends  or 
because  motions  which  have  become  almost  automatic 
lead  to  carelessness  or  inattention. 

A  safety  construction  closely  resembling  the  collapsible 
cup  used  by  travelers  is  fitted  to  the  under  side  of  the 
ram  bottom  side  up ;  the  moving  ram  oscillates,  as  it  were, 
within  the  cup,  which  is  so  adjusted  in  height  that,  while 
the  fingers  of  the  operator  cannot  pass  between  its  edge  and 
the  bottom  die,  the  sheet  metal,  however,  can  be  fed 
through  the  space.  As  the  upper  ram  descends  for  the 
working  stock  the  cup  collapses,  the  rings  of  which  the 
cup  is  formed  sliding  within  each  other.  On  the  up- 
stroke the  cup  extends  itself  again,  leaving  room  for  the 
strip  to  pass  beneath  its  lower  edge.  If  any  variation 


68  SAFETY 

in  thickness  of  the  strip  occurs  the  cup  collapses  as  may 
be  necessary. 

An  ingenious  safety  device  for  a  stamping-press  conv 
pels  the  use  of  both  hands  to  engage  the  machine  with 
the  driving-power.  The  two  levers,  one  on  each  upright, 
must  be  held  by  the  operator's  hands  in  the  operative 
position  before  the  ram  makes  its  descending  stroke. 
The  work  is  fed  in  previously,  without  the  necessity  of  any 
hand  manipulation. 

While  operating  a  shaper  or  planer  the  chips  of  brittle 
material  are  often  struck  off  with  considerable  force. 
To  protect  the  worker's  eyes  from  this  danger  there  may 
be  placed  a  bent  piece  of  sheet  metal  fitted  with  clamps 
to  grip  the  body  of  the  tool,  forcing  the  chips  to  strike  the 
shield. 

The  experience  of  another  country  is  always  illuminat- 
ing. Labor  inspectors  for  the  northeastern  division  of 
England  classified  the  670  accidents  that  were  reported  in 
connection  with  lathes  in  1910  as  follows: 

From  the  driving-belt  of  the  lathe 24 

From  the  cone-pulley  or  belt  of  the  lathe  proper 46 

From  spindle-gear  and  back-gear 17 

From  the  change-wheels  at  the  head-stock 17 

From  other  gears  in  apron  and  feed  mechanism 8 

From  the  driving-dog 71 

From  the  face-plate  or  chuck 23 

From  projecting  set-screws  about  the  lathe  or  work. .  8 

From  the  tool-points  or  article  being  turned 297 

From  flying  chips  or  articles  being  turned  flying  out. .  127 

From  other  causes,  including  falls  upon  the  workmen.  32 

670 

Nearly  one-third  of  these  accidents  occurred  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work  being  turned.  Next  in  importance 
were  the  accidents  incident  to  the  dog  or  driver  catching 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      69 

the  arm  or  clothing  of  the  workman;  while  the  chuck 
or  face-plate  accidents  might  be  taken  together,  making 
up  nearly  15  per  cent,  of  the  entire  list. 

In  the  common  lathe  dog  the  set -screw  constitutes, 
perhaps,  the  most  dangerous  detail  of  this  system.  A 
right-handed  man  filing  a  surface  in  the  lathe  and  steady- 
ing the  point  of  the  file  by  his  left  hand  runs  the  risk  of 
having  his  sleeve  caught  by  the  revolving  dog. 

To  obviate  this  source  of  accident  the  projecting  square- 
headed  set-screw  should  be  replaced  by  the  hollow  set- 
screw.  Another  safety  device  completely  incloses  the  dog 
within  a  dish-shaped  aluminum  cover.  The  latter  is 
fitted  with  springs  on  the  inner  surface,  which  pass  over 
the  set-screw  and  the  tail  of  the  dog,  holding  the  pro? 
jecting  cover  close  without  rattling  or  danger  of  shaking 
loose.  When  the  work  is  put  in  place  on  the  centers 
and  the  dog  goes  in  place  close  to  the  face-plate  the  pro- 
jecting cover  incloses  the  danger  area. 

The  National  Tube  Company  recognizes  that  the  pro- 
jecting jaws  of  the  lathe  chuck  or  face-plate  are  a  great 
menace  to  the  left  arm  of  the  operator,  especially  in  filing 
chucked  articles  which  are  close  to  the  plane  in  which  the 
jaws  are  revolving.  To  lessen  this  danger  a  steel  semi- 
cylinder  is  swung  over  the  face-plate  and  locked  in  place 
upon  the  bed  of  the  lathe  so  that  the  plane  of  the  jaws 
is  covered.  This  device  can  be  employed  on  high-speed 
tools  such  as  are  used  on  brass  and  with  many  forms  of 
turret  lathes. 

The  Allgemeine  Elektricitaets  Gesellschaft,  of  Berlin, 
believe  in  making  their  machines  as  near  "fool  proof* 
as  possible.  For  example,  their  milling-machine  has  all 
the  driving  mechanism  incased.  A  guard  of  sheet  steel 
and  wire  mesh  protects  the  transmission  from  the  coun- 


SAFETY 


ter shaft  to  the  spindle,  and  all  the  feed  mechanisms  are 

equally  and  effectively  covered.     Even  the  cutter  itself 

is  under  cover.     There  is  no  possibility  of  an  accident. 

In  connection  with  the  operation  of  milling-machines 


J? 


SAFEGUARD   FOR  LATHE  CHUCK 

and  metal   circular  saws  the  Allgemeine   Elektricitaets 
Gesellschaft  issues  these  rules: 

1.  All  fast-running  mills  and  saws  must  be  surrounded  with  pro- 
tecting caps. 

2.  Special  care  is  to  be  taken  that  the  stresses  on  saws  and  mills 
are  exactly  central. 

3.  Damaged  or  sprung  cutters  to  be  replaced  immediately. 

4.  Small  pieces  to  be  cut  must  be  fastened  in  holders  and  jigs. 
Under  no  condition  are  small  pieces  held  in  the  hand  to  be  cut. 

5.  Chips  to  be  removed  by  means  of  sheet-metal  dippers  or  similar 
apparatus. 

6.  Wiping  off  chips  in  front  of  the  mill  or  saw  is  only  to  be  under- 
taken with  brooms  or  brushes  supplied  for  this  purpose. 

Again,  the  National  Tube  Company,  to  obviate  the  in- 
creased weight  of  the  motor  geared  to  a  direct  drive  at  the 
head  of  the  lathe,  mounts  the  motor  on  the  wall,  leading  a 
short  belt  down  to  the  spindle.  The  motor  is  mounted 
upon  a  spring  suspension  with  horizontal  adjustment  to 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      71 

maintain  a  belt  tension,  and  the  belt  drive  is  protected  by 
wire  mesh.  Alt  gears  are  completely  incased,  and  in 
place  of  the  usual  cone -pulley  and  its  accompanying 
countershaft  the  varying  speeds  for  the  spindle  are  secured 
by  the  ordinary  controller  whose  crank-handle  is  placed 
conveniently  to  the  tool  carriage.  The  switches  are  in- 
stalled on  top  of  the  projecting  case  which  covers  the 
back-gears.  The  lathe-bed  is  illuminated  by  branching 
from  the  lighting  circuit  and  projecting  the  flexible  cord 
except  at  the  very  end  where  it  descends  to  the  hanging 
lamp. 

A  heavy  driven  head-stock  should  have  the  back-gear 
from  the  motor  and  the  belt  guarded.  The  train  of  gears 
should  also  be  safeguarded  within  a  wire  mesh,  and  the 
latter  used  also  to  incase  the  end  of  the  spindle.  The 
mesh  lets  light  pass  through  it,  but  not  fingers  nor  parts 
of  garments.  It  does  not  reverberate  with  the  hum  of  the 
gears  behind  it.  It  is  clean  and  at  the  same  time  is 
effective. 

For  the  small  cross-cut  metal  saw  revolving  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed  the  machine  is  conspicuously  self-contained 
by  putting  the  motor  directly  under  the  table-top  and 
belting  it  down  to  the  countershaft  below  close  to  the 
floor. 

The  saw  blade  is  safeguarded  by  means  of  a  hood 
pivoted  at  the  back  of  the  table-top,  with  a  hinge  so 
adjusted  that  the  whole  guard  can  be  thrown  over  below 
the  plane  of  the  table- top.  This  is  necessary  when  long 
pieces  are  to  be  sawed  and  the  guard  is  mounted  in  the 
plane  of  the  blade. 

Dough  mixers  and  choppers,  when  operated  mechanic- 
ally, are  sources  of  risk  to  the  worker,  who  is  liable  to  lose 
fingers  or  hands  from  the  spiral  fins  or  knives.  The  Ger- 


72  SAFETY 

mans  pivot  the  mixer  within  the  protecting  casing  around 
the  belt-shaft,  then  a  latticework  lid  is  interlocked  with 
the  driving-gear  so  that  when  it  is  down  the  knives  cannot 
be  put  in  gear.  Closing  the  lid  entirely  depresses  the  steel 
triangles  until  the  trough  is  completely  covered,  and  when 
snapped  in  place  the  knives  can  be  thrown  into  gear  and 
the  process  completed.  The  engaging  device  is  inter- 
locked with  the  lid  so  that  it  cannot  be  lifted  when  the 
knives  are  revolving.  When  the  knives  are  stopped  at 
the  completion  of  the  work  the  whole  trough  can  be  tilted 
— the  knives  out  of  gear  and  inoperative  by  reason  of  the 
lifting  of  the  lid — and  the  contents  of  the  trough  emptied. 

When  asked  what  class  of  machines  he  considered  the 
most  dangerous,  a  superintendent  of  many  years'  experi- 
ence replied  at  once,  "Wood- working."  Before  discuss- 
ing the  devices  to  lessen  accidents  on  the  machine  itself 
there  are  certain  general  observations. 

Arrangements  should  provide  absolutely  for  workmen 
always  throwing  their  machine  out  of  motion,  even  when 
leaving  it  temporarily.  Belting,  pulleys,  exposed  gears, 
sprockets,  and  chains  should  be  guarded  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  set-screws  provided.  All  lights  should  be  so 
placed  and  hooded  that  there  is  no  glare  in  the  worker's 
eyes ;  the  light  should  be  thrown  on  the  work  and  danger 
zone  of  the  machine  or  tool. 

Generally  speaking,  all  wood-working  tools  are  operated 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  Naturally,  they  become  a  pro- 
lific source  of  accidents,  resulting  in  serious  disablement 
of  wage-earning  capacity.  The  floor  of  the  wood- working 
shop  is  usually  so  slippery  and  smooth  that  the  operator 
runs  the  risk  of  slipping  and  falling  into  the  danger  zone 
of  the  cutting  tool.  A  rubber  mat  placed  around  the 
machine  and  secured  to  the  floor  is  an  excellent  pre- 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      73 

cautionary  measure;  but  better  still  are  abrasive  strips, 
which  can  be  kept  free  from  sawdust  and  are  practically 
indestructible. 

In  working  at  the  buzz-planer  it  is  easy  for  the  fingers 
of  the  workman  to  come  in  contact  with  the  knives  if  the 
wood  "kicks."  When  the  pieces  of  wood  are  small  the 
danger  is  even  greater. 

The  Midvale  Steel  Company  have  made  a  feeder  for 
small  pieces,  very  similar  to  a  plane-handle,  with  the 
under  edge  a  strip  of  rough  metal,  which  grips  the  wood 
and  pushes  it  along,  thus  keeping  the  operator's  fingers 
absolutely  away  from  the  knife. 

In  the  old  type  of  unguarded  planer,  with  its  square 
cutter,  there  was  a  comparatively  wide  space  between 


OLD-STYLE    SQUARE   CUTTER-HEAD         SAFETY   CIRCULAR   CUTTER-HEAD 

the  table  and  the  knife.  A  German  device  is  a  circular 
cutter-head  which  fills  nearly  the  entire  opening,  so  that 
if  the  man's  fingers  slip  nothing  more  serious  can  happen 
than  a  slight  cut. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  operator  should  not 
allow  his  hands  to  rest  on  the  wood  as  it  passes  over  the 
cutter.  Knots  in  the  wood,  a  change  in  the  grain,  or  too 


74  SAFETY 

heavy  a  cut  may  throw  the  wood  away  from  the  machine 
and  the  worker's  hands  against  the  knife. 

The  type  of  accident  that  may  be  expected  from  band- 
saws,  causing  an  ugly  wound,  is  the  breaking  of  blades, 
even  with  a  skilled  operator.  The  thrust  on  the  blade, 
turning  a  sharp  corner  and  at  other  points,  keeps  the 
worker  at  continual  tension.  The  remedy  is  incasing  the 
lower  part  of  the  machine  in  wood  and  metal,  so  that  the 
doors  can  be  easily  opened,  while  the  upper  part  should 
be  inclosed,  preferably  by  wire  mesh.  Particular  pains 
should  be  taken  to  guard  that  part  of  the  saw-blade  where 
it  comes  nearest  the  table,  as  a  break  there  might  seriously 
injure  the  operator's  head. 

Circular-saw  accidents  are  due,  first  of  all,  to  the  high 
speed  of  this  tool,  which  revolves  so  fast  that  the  work- 
man often  does  not  appreciate  how  far  the  teeth  extend 
beyond  the  revolving  disk.  In  the  absence  of  mechanical 
feeding  on  the  table,  the  wood  is  liable  to  kick  and  strike 
the  man's  body  more  or  less  violently. 

An  operator  should  always  stand  at  the  side  of  the 
piece  that  is  being  fed  into  the  machine,  never  in  front. 

A  recent  analysis  made  by  the  Minnesota  Bureau  of 
Labor  of  accidents  from  flying  boards  is  suggestive : 

1.  An  edger-man's  new  helper  tried  to  get  a  board  out  which  was 
stuck  in  the  edger  saws.     From  his  lack  of  skill  he  did  not  do  it  proper- 
ly, and  the  board,  striking  him  in  the  abdomen,  killed  him. 

2.  A  rip-saw  operator  lifted  the  feed-roll  to  release  a  piece  which  had 
stuck,  but  did  not  move  to  one  side.    When  the  board  flew  back  it 
struck  him. 

Both  of  these  accidents  would  have  been  prevented  by 
the  above  suggestions. 

3.  An  edger-man  started  to  feed  the  saw  carrying  an  armful  of  pieces 
partly  resting  on  the  table.     One  of  these  fell  from  his  grasp,  and, 


BAND-SAW 

A — Basket  to  catch  end  of  broken  saw  in  case  of 

accident. 
B — Protection  for  operator's  head. 


METAL  SHIELDS  FOR  BAND-SAWS    IN  SHOPS 
OF    ILLINOIS    STEEL    COMPANY 


THE     OLIVER     IRON     MINING    COMPANY'S 

BAND-SAWS     PROTECTED    BY    WIRE-MESH 

GUARDS 


A  PENDULUM  SAW  WITH  METAL  HOOD 
AND  COUNTERWEIGHT  IN  CARPENTER 
SHOP  OF  THE  NATIONAL  TUBE  COMPANY 


TYPES    OF    GUARD    FOR    BAND    AND    SWING    SAWS 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      75 

lighting  on  top  of  the  saw,  was  thrown  against  his  breast,  killing  him 
instantly. 

4.  A  board  had  fallen  back  of  the  saw,  and  the  operator  tried  to 
get  it.    The  saw  caught  it,  and  hurled  it  against  his  head,  killing  him. 

These  two  accidents  could  have  been  prevented  by  a 
factory  rule  that  workmen  should  not  pile  their  boards 
on  the  saw-table,  but  on  one  adjacent,  and  feed  one  at  a 
time;  and  by  another  requirement  that  operators  stop 
their  machines  whenever  loose  boards  fall  near  the  saws. 

5.  A  rip-saw  operator  was  struck  and  killed  by  a  small  piece  that 
broke  off  from  the  work.    This  was  probably  an  unavoidable  accident, 
although  the  likelihood  of  it  would  have  been  diminished  if  the  operator 
stood  always  at  the  side  of  his  work  instead  of  in  front  of  it.     These 
listed  accidents  were  fatal,  but  a  large  number  of  non-fatal  accidents 
resulted  from  the  same  set  of  causes. 

The  best  shop  practice  in  connection  with  the  circular 
saw  makes  use  of  a  spreader,  placed  back  of  the  saw,  with 
its  lower  part  of  the  same  width  as  the  saw,  and  tapering 
somewhat  toward  the  edge.  The  object  of  this  spreader 
is,  of  course,  that  it  opens  out  the  cut  and  prevents  the 
saw  from  binding. 

Another  effective  safety  device  is  a  wooden  or  metal 
hood  for  the  saw,  with  a  sort  of  cage  coming  down  from 
above,  so  as  to  leave  the  table  free.  This  guard  rises 
automatically,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  wood. 

Swing-saws  should  be  provided  with  a  metal  hood,  and 
so  counterweighted  that  the  saw  is  always  swung  back 
and  away  from  the  operator.  Of  course,  there  must  be  a 
periodic  inspection  of  the  parts  to  see  that  none  of  the 
screws  work  loose,  resulting  in  loss  of  control. 

A  safeguard  for  the  cross-cut  saw  offers  no  serious  diffi- 
culty, as  it  takes  the  form  of  a  hood,  hinged  back  of  the 
saw  on  the  table. 

The  problems  connected  with  grinding,  come  up  for 


76  SAFETY 

solution  before  the  shop  superintendent,  who  is  very 
well  aware  that  the  use  of  a  rapidly  revolving  emery 
wheel  in  the  grinding  of  tools,  or  as  an  abrador,  is 
fraught  with  the  possibilities  of  dangerous  accidents. 
The  wheel  may  burst  as  the  result  of  centrifugal  force, 
of  outside  strain,  or  from  catching  the  rim  of  the 
wheel  in  the  tool,  thus  tearing  the  wheel  apart;  par- 
ticles of  steel  or  of  the  abrasive  material  may  enter  the 
eyes,  nostrils,  or  mouth,  resulting  in  serious  injury; 
under  the  conditions  of  high  speed,  the  belt  governing  the 
revolution  of  the  wheel  may  break  and  fly  apart;  or  the 
dust  produced  by  the  grinding,  while  too  light  and  fine 
to  result  in  direct  injury,  may,  if  inhaled  for  any  length 
of  time,  prove  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  worker. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  the  bursting  of  a  grinding- wheel 
was  looked  upon  as  a  common  occurrence.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  cause  was  given  as  overspeeding.  It 
was  the  opinion  of  the  time  that  all  grinding-wheels  were 
dangerous  tools,  and  that  if  a  man  ran  his  wheel  a  little 
above  the  working  speed  there  was  great  danger  of  the 
wheel  bursting. 

The  first  thought  is  for  the  issuance  of  hard-and-fast 
rules  regarding  the  operation  and  care  of  grinding-wheels, 
but  these  can  be  supplemented  by  actual  safeguards 
against  the  bursting  of  the  wheel.  One  of  these  is  the  use 
of  a  concave  disk  or  flange,  thicker  at  the  center  than  at  its 
circumference,  which  shall  so  bear  against  the  wheel  when 
tightened  that  the  pressure  shall  grip  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  center. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  these  flanges,  or 
safety  collars,  should  never  be  less  than  one- third  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel.  The  inner  flange  should  never  be 
loose,  but  fixed  on  the  spindle.  Wheels  should  never  be 


SAFETY  COLLAR,  METAL  GUARDS,  PLATE-GLASS  EYE -SHIELD,  AND  INCLOSED  BELTING 
FOR   THE    OLIVER    IRON    MINING   COMPANY'S   GRINDING-WHEELS 


INCLOSED    BELTING    AND    SAFEGUARDED    BUZZ    PLANER 


CUTTING    AND    GRINDING    TOOLS      77 

allowed  to  run  when  held  only  by  a  small  nut  or  a  small 
washer  and  nut,  as  this  is  liable  to  crawl  and  cause  accident 
by  excessive  pressure  on  the  wheel.  It  is  recommended 
that  flanges  be  used  at  least  one-half  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel,  bearing  only  at  their  outer  edge  on  a  flat  ring 
surface,  approximately  one-eighth  the  diameter  of  the 
flange. 

It  has  been  found  satisfactory  to  use  compressible 
washers  of  pulp  or  rubber  between  the  wheel  and  the 
flange  for  the  sake  of  dis- 
tributing the  pressure  uni- 
formly when  the  flanges  are 
tightened.  When  mounting 
wheels  precaution  should  be 
taken  that  flanges  are  not 
screwed  up  too  tightly,  as  no 
great  pressure  is  required. 

There  are  many  types  of 
protecting  flanges  in  use,  all 
of  which  have  certain  values 
and  which,  if  in  use  when  a 
wheel  breaks,  tend  to  min- 
imize the  danger  from  flying 
fragments. 

In  addition  to  the    safety        SAFEGUARDED  EMERY  WHEEL 
collar  good  practice  calls  for 

a  metal  hood  wherever  possible,  irrespective  of  the  type 
of  flange  used  in  mounting.  These  hoods  are  generally 
of  steel,  plain  or  corrugated,  surrounding  the  periphery 
of  the  wheel ;  in  case  the  wheel  bursts  the  encircling  band 
prevents  the  broken  fragments  from  flying,  thus  safe- 
guarding the  operator  and  his  fellows. 

The  hood  illustrated  as  an  example  has  been  in  use  for 


78  SAFETY 

the  past  fifteen  years,  with  the  remarkable  record  that  no 
grinding-machine  operator  has  been  seriously  injured  by 
broken  wheels  where  the  machine  was  so  equipped. 

Foremen  careful  of  men  and  machines  know  that  rests 
should  be  adjusted  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  wheel, 
avoiding  the  danger  of  catching  the  material  between  the 
revolving  surface  and  the  rest.  Neglect  of  this  precaution 
is  responsible  for  many  accidents,  some  of  them  serious. 

Grinding-tools  can  affect  the  eyes  injuriously  by  dust 
and  sparks.  An  inexpensive  but  effective  eye  protection 
is  a  shield  of  glass  suspended  over  the  wheel  from  the 
protecting  hood,  as  the  glass  permits  a  view  of  the  work  at 
all  times,  even  when  it  is  necessary  for  the  operator  to 
work  close  to  the  wheel.  Where  it  is  impracticable  or 
undesirable  to  use  a  glass  shield  an  effective  guard  is  a 
leather  flap  to  the  top  of  the  protection  hood  and  so  ad- 
justed as  to  interrupt  the  sparks.  Goggles  of  various 
types  also  afford  protection  and  are  used  by  operators 
when  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  work  very  close  to  the 
wheel. 

Of  course,  driving-belts  should  be  provided  with  guards 
of  sheet  steel  or  wire  mesh  in  any  of  the  approved  forms. 

Good  light  and  ventilation  smooth  the  way  for  accident 
prevention  in  grinding-rooms  as  much  as  elsewhere. 


VI 

ILLUMINATION 

THE  technical  side  of  lighting  already  forms  a  vast 
subject.  New  illuminants  are  constantly  coming  to 
the  front,  and  merely  their  uses  in  industry  make  up  a 
life  study. 

The  last  century,  remarkable  for  the  development  of 
machinery  and  its  application  in  industry,  was  also 
characterized  by  a  great  advance  in  methods  of  illumina- 
tion. These  two  developments  may  be  said  to  have  taken 
place  side  by  side,  and  fortunately  so,  since  the  compli- 
cated nature  of  industrial  processes  to-day  makes  good 
lighting  very  important. 

Another  natural  result  of  development  in  artificial 
illumination,  is  the  vast  increase  in  amount  of  work  that  is 
carried  on  during  night  hours.  Business  under  some  con- 
ditions is  now  conducted  by  artificial  light  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  perfected  illumination  is  therefore  coming  to 
be  regarded  as  much  an  absolute  necessity  in  its  field, 
as  adequate  ventilation,  pure-water  supply,  and  proper 
sanitation  are  now  considered  necessary  factors  among 
industrialists  for  maintaining  the  efficiency  of  employees, 
cutting  down  losses  of  time,  and  increasing  the  output. 

To  the  hygienist  and  sanitary  expert  the  importance  of 
good  lighting  is  conceded  for  two  main  reasons :  first,  its 
direct  influence  in  maintaining  healthful  conditions  for 
workers,  especially  from  the  standpoint  of  eye  hygiene; 


8o 


SAFETY 


and,  second,  its  importance  as  a  means  of  reducing  the 
number  of  industrial  accidents. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  illumination  on  health  a 
distinction  must  be  drawn  between  natural  and  artificial 
light.  The  importance  of  adequate  admission  of  daylight 
to  workrooms  was  recognized  by  authorities  even  before 


SEASONAL  DISTRIBUTION  FOR  THREE  SUCCESSIVE  YEARS  OF  ABOUT  700 
DEATHS  ANNUALLY  FROM  INDUSTRIAL  ACCIDENTS  REPORTED  FROM 
80,OOO  PLANTS.  IN  THE  MONTHS  OF  NOVEMBER,  DECEMBER,  AND 
JANUARY,  WHICH  SHOW  THE  LARGEST  NUMBER  OF  DARK  DAYS,  THE 
NUMBER  OF  ACCIDENTS  WAS  THE  LARGEST 

they  had  begun  to  consider  artificial  light.  Special  em- 
phasis has  also  been  placed  on  the  value  of  abundant  day- 
light in  legislation  affecting  such  trades  as  enameling, 
glasswork,  and  others  where  there  is  a  possibility  of  lead- 


ILLUMINATION  81 

poisoning,  and  in  connection  with  industries  in  which 
special  precautions  must  be  taken  to  avoid  a  tendency 
toward  tuberculosis. 

It  is  well  known  that  modern  methods  of  combating 
consumption  are  based  mainly  on  the  beneficial  effects  of 
sunlight  and  fresh  air.  Rooms  into  which  daylight  enters 
with  difficulty  are  apt  to  become  unclean  and  unhealthy, 
or,  as  the  proverb  phrases  it,  "Where  the  sun  does  not 
enter  the  doctor  does." 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  continual  insufficiency  of 
daylight  imposes  a  strain  on  the  eyes  of  workers  engaged 
in  printing,  knitting,  and  sewing,  but  this  is  only  one  of 
the  many  evils  induced  by  want  of  light.  To  work  in 
gloomy  surroundings  is  depressing  to  the  general  health 
and  spirits,  and  almost  invariably  it  will  be  found  that  in 
a  factory  where  the  lighting  is  notoriously  bad,  the  per- 
centage of  spoilage  and  of  workers  absent  through  sickness 
will  be  abnormally  high.  Another  result  of  defective  illu- 
mination is  want  of  cleanliness.  It  is  only  to  be  ex- 
pected that  when  appliances  and  machinery  cannot  be 
seen  well  they  should  become  dirty.  In  the  case  of 
restaurants  and  trades  which  are  concerned  with  the 
preparation  of  food,  proper  illumination  is,  of  course, 
imperative.  Again,  in  trades  in  which  poisonous  ma- 
terials are  handled  it  need  not  be  pointed  out  how  extra 
hazardous  may  be  the  consequences  of  defective  lighting. 
Dr.  R.  J.  Currie,  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  Chester 
(England),  recently  made  a  statement  that  in  the  schools 
of  Chester  personal  uncleanliness  and  defects  of  vision 
always  occurred  together.  It  is  probable  that  both  evils 
could  thus  be  traced  to  defective  lighting,  and  the  same 
would  doubtless  be  found  in  the  case  of  many  workshops 
and  factories. 


82  SAFETY 

In  the  report  of  H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  in 
Great  Britain  for  1909  the  need  for  adequate  lighting  in 
factories  is  set  forth  as  follows: 

The  importance  of  adequate  lighting  in  industrial  employments  is 
obvious,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  especially  where  dangerous  processes  are 
carried  on;  as  bearing  upon  health  in  many  ways,  directly  or  indirect- 
ly; and  as  a  condition  of  efficient  work.  On  the  health  side  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  inefficient  illumination  entails  risk,  strain, 
and  ultimate  damage  to  the  sight,  even  apart  from  interference  with 
work,  that  it  tends  to  neglect  of  cleanliness,  and  adds  to  the  risk  of 
working  in  poisonous  materials;  and  that  it  increases  the  need  for 
artificial  light,  which  can  seldom  be  as  satisfactory  as  daylight. 

In  this  matter  of  artificial  lighting  not  only  must  the 
unsatisfactory  conditions  that  arise  in  factories  through 
insufficiency  of  light  be  dealt  with,  but  there  are  also  other 
conditions  in  which  artificial  light  may  be  wrongly  ar- 
ranged and  so  give  rise  to  new  difficulties.  In  general, 
artificial  light  is  rarely  as  satisfactory  as  daylight,  and 
there  is  room  for  a  vast  amount  of  educational  work 
among  managers  of  factories,  that  they  may  utilize  their 
light  distribution  to  better  advantage. 

Recognizing  the  deficiencies  of  artificial  light,  legislation 
in  Holland  has  recommended  that  women  and  young 
persons  should  not  be  engaged  in  any  occupation  liable 
to  be  unhealthy  or  dangerous  in  premises  which  require 
artificial  light  between  9  A.M.  and  3  P.M.  In  the  regula- 
tions a  minimum  illumination  on  the  work  of  10  lux 
(approximately  i  foot-candle)  was  prescribed  for  general 
work,  and  in  certain  trades  recognized  to  be  specially 
trying  to  the  eyes,  such  as  jewel  work,  sewing,  knitting, 
embroidery,  and  engraving,  a  minimum  of  15  lux  (1.5 
foot-candle)  was  specified.  The  first  necessity  in  light- 
ing, whether  natural  or  artificial,  is  that  it  should  be 
sufficient. 


ILLUMINATION  83 

In  Great  Britain  the  authorities  have  been  strongly 
impressed  by  the  necessity  for  attempting  to  frame  more 
definite  rules  specifying  the  amount  of  light  required  for 
various  purposes,  and  have  given  instructions  for  photo- 
metric measurements  to  be  carried  out  in  a  large  number 
of  factories.  The  difficulty  is  to  set  up  a  standard,  but  it 
is  possible  that  inspectors  should  be  given  general  statu- 
tory powers  to  require  adequate  illumination  in  all  places 
which  are  a  source  of  danger  by  reason  of  insufficient 
lighting. 

Such  a  recommendation  is  based  mainly  on  the  recog- 
nition that  insufficient  lighting  is  a  source  of  danger; 
but  it  is  also  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  hygiene. 
In  the  report  of  H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  in 
Great  Britain  for  1908  various  examples  of  the  results  of 
working  by  insufficient  light  were  mentioned,  notably 
that  of  girls  with  weak  sight  engaged  in  certain  textile 
mills.  In  commenting  on  these  conditions,  it  was  re- 
marked, "Sometimes,  however,  we  are  met  with  indiffer- 
ence or  reluctance  to  spend  money  on  this  condition  for 
healthy  working  [i.  e.,  sufficient  illumination],  and  we 
have  no  statutory  provision  to  rely  upon." 

It  would  appear  necessary,  however,  to  move  with  care 
in  this  matter  and  to  collect  full  information  regarding 
the  amount  and  character  of  illumination  necessary  and 
feasible  for  different  classes  of  work,  and  as  to  the  best 
means  of  measurement.  Any  definite  specifications  of  a 
certain  amount  of  illumination  naturally  implies  that 
sufficiently  trustworthy  and  convenient  instruments  for 
measurements  should  be  available.  Fortunately,  con- 
siderable progress  has  been  made  during  the  last  few 
years  toward  rendering  such  measurements  more  simple 

and  accurate.     A  considerable  amount  of  work  in  this 

7 


84  SAFETY 

direction  has  been  done  by  the  Illuminating  Engineering 
Society  in  the  United  States  and  England  in  obtaining 
data  regarding  illumination  in  schools,  libraries,  and 
factories,  where  the  measurement  of  illumination  is  com- 
ing to  be  looked  upon  as  quite  a  simple  and  reliable 
process.  The  employer  by  means  of  a  photometer  can 
measure  and  test  the  illumination  in  his  own  plant. 

Perhaps  the  most  exhaustive  report  ever  published  on 
any  typical  factory  lighting  installation  was  that  pre- 
sented in  a  paper  at  the  annual  convention  of  the  Il- 
luminating Engineering  Society  in  1909  by  Mr.  L.  B. 
Marks,  consulting  engineer  and  ex-president  of  the 
society.  The  data  given  in  this  report  is  based  upon 
several  thousand  measurements  of  illumination,  and  cover 
not  only  artificial  light  but  daylight.  This  report  was  the 
first  to  call  attention  to  the  striking  fact,  that  in  the  aver- 
age factory  lighting  installation  illuminated  by  the  typical 
method  of  local  lighting,  the  intensity  of  the  illumination 
at  night  directly  underneath  the  lamps  is  often  several 
times  as  much  as  that  in  the  same  location  in  the  day- 
time, when  artificial  light  is  not  used. 

It  is  certain  that  a  stage  has  now  been  reached  at  which 
it  is  desirable  to  consider  the  possibility  of  making  recom- 
mendations for  "adequate  lighting"  more  definite.  In 
order  to  do  this  the  necessary  data  and  statistics  must 
be  accumulated.  Actual  measurements  of  illumination 
are  most  valuable  for  this  purpose,  although  there  are  many 
other  matters,  such  as  the  location  and  arrangement  of 
lamps,  the  color  of  the  light,  and  the  absence  of  "glare," 
which  are  extremely  important.  In  the  absence  of  com- 
plete information  it  may  be  necessary  in  many  cases  to 
be  satisfied  with  wide  and  general  recommendations  for 
the  moment. 


ILLUMINATION  85 

It  must  not  be  assumed  that  the  provision  of  sufficient 
light  is  all  that  is  needed.  It  is  almost  equally  essential 
that  the  light  should  be  wisely  diffused.  One  of  the 
greatest  defects  to  be  met  with  in  much  of  the  factory 
lighting  of  to-day  is  that  the  lamps  are  not  sufficiently 
shaded,  and  are  too  frequently  placed  in  positions  in 
which  they  dazzle  the  eyes  and  impose  a  distinct  strain. 
Very  few  of  the  modern  illuminants  are  sufficiently  mild 
in  intensity  to  be  used  at  close  range.  When  the  eye  is 
forced  to  encounter  these  bright  lights  it  naturally  adds 
to  the  strain  of  the  work.  An  unshaded  electric  lamp  of 
only  one  candle-power  if  used  continuously  in  the  immedi- 
ate field  of  vision,  may  be  sufficient  to  cause  severe  eye 
strain.  In  general,  lamps  should  be  screened  by  some 
form  of  well-designed  reflector  which,  besides  minimizing 
the  glare,  directs  the  light  downward  on  the  work,  where 
it  is  actually  needed,  and  not  in  the  eyes  of  the  operator. 

Another  point  that  requires  attention  is  that  the  lamps 
should  be  placed  in  the  proper  position.  In  writing,  for 
example,  it  is  a  continual  source  of  inconvenience  if  the 
lamps  are  situated  on  the  right  side,  so  that  a  shadow  of 
the  hand  is  cast  over  the  page.  The  light  in  such  cases 
should,  of  course,  come  from  over  the  left  shoulder.  This 
defect  is  not  uncommon  in  banks  and  offices.  It  need 
hardly  be  added,  that  in  mechanical  operations,  such  as 
cutting  and  drilling,  the  proper  direction  of  the  light  is 
even  more  important.  Still  another  defect  in  lighting  to 
be  guarded  against  is  in  unsteady  and  flickering  sources, 
which  contribute  to  eye  injury  probably  far  more  than 
mere  lack  of  light. 

Indeed,  any  defect  in  the  lighting  tends  to  increase 
the  strain  of  employment  and  is  prejudicial  to  general 
health.  There  are  certain  occupations  which  are  es- 


86  SAFETY 

pecially  trying  to  the  eyes,  such  as  textile  work,  sewing, 
lace-making,  engraving,  watch-making,  and  printing,  where 
good  illumination  is  particularly  essential.  In  fine  litho- 
graphic and  photographic  work  (in  which  the  operator  has 
to  observe  closely  the  behavior  of  the  glowing  filament), 
welding,  glass-making,  and  other  industries,  special  pre- 
cautions have  to  be  taken  owing  to  the  glaring  effect  of 
brilliant  incandescent  surfaces. 

Good  illumination,  in  assisting  an  operator  in  his  daily 
work  and  diminishing  the  number  of  absentees  through 
ill  health,  is  naturally  a  matter  of  considerable  conse- 
quence to  manufacturing  concerns,  especially  in  those 
states  and  countries  where  workmen's  compensation  laws 
are  enforced.  Insurance  companies,  which  have  to  meet 
claims  for  compensation  arising  through  ill  health  trace- 
able to  bad  lighting,  find  this  subject  of  much  importance. 
It  is  quite  reasonable  to  suggest  that  when  sufficient 
statistics  are  available  it  can  be  shown  that  a  great  deal 
of  ill  health  of  various  kinds,  now  otherwise  attributed, 
is  more  or  less  directly  due  to  this  cause. 

But  the  value  of  good  illumination  is  equally  impor- 
tant from  the  point  of  view  of  safety.  Those  who  have 
studied  this  subject  are  well  aware  of  the  considerable 
number  of  accidents  resulting  annually  from  defective 
lighting.  A  leading  casualty  insurance  company  of  New* 
York  recently  placed  bad  lighting  in  a  list  of  accident 
causes,  stating  that  "the  greatest  number  of  accidents 
occur  during  the  months  of  diminishing  light." 

A  prominent  official  of  one  of  America's  largest  manu- 
facturing companies  is  authority  for  the  statement  that 
"insufficient  illumination"  is  frequently  held  by  juries 
to  be  "contributory  negligence,"  and  in  the  defense  of 
accident  suits  the  lawyers  of  this  company  find  it  a  valu- 


NO  DIRECT  LIGHT  IN   EYES;     LIGHT  CONCENTRATED    WHERE    NEEDED 


MORE  LIGHT  IN  EYES  THAN  ON  WORK.      POOR  DIFFUSION.      WRONG  LOCATION  OF  LAMP 


ILLUMINATION  87 

able  point  to  offer  testimony  by  a  competent  witness  to 
prove  the  adequacy  of  lighting  arrangements  in  this 
company's  plants. 

Experience  has  thus  shown  it  is  in  the  dark  winter 
months,  when  artificial  light  has  to  be  largely  relied  upon, 
that  mishaps  mainly  occur.  It  has  also  been  noted  that 
a  relatively  large  number  of  accidents  occur  after  4  P.M., 
this  being  the  time  at  which  artificial  light  becomes 
necessary  in  the  winter -time,  and  that  the  amount  of 
spoiled  work  during  this  period  is  exceptionally  great. 
There  has  not  yet  been  concerted  effort  to  trace  the  per- 
centage of  accidents  that  may  be  fitly  ascribed  to  poor 
lighting;  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  many  unexplained 
mishaps  could  be  found  due  to  badly  placed  lamps  or  in- 
sufficient illumination. 

It  is  of  utmost  importance  that  the  illumination  of 
dangerous  machinery  be  sufficient.  It  is  not  of  much 
value  to  place  a  guard  round  a  dangerous  machine  if  the 
light  is  so  poor  that  every  moving  part  cannot  be  clearly 
distinguished,  and  many  a  machine  that  would  be  con- 
sidered safe  in  a  well-lighted  room  becomes  extremely 
dangerous  if  allowed  to  run  in  semi-darkness. 

Serious  accidents  completely  demoralize  a  shop.  This 
demoralization  may  last  for  a  day  or  a  week.  During 
this  period  of  distress  and  excitement  the  operatives  are 
inefficient  and  expectant  of  further  trouble  and  the  rate 
of  production  drops,  while  spoilage  and  "seconds,"  due 
to  nervousness  and  inattention,  increase.  Considering 
also  that  the  absence  of  employees  is  greater  and  the 
whole  spirit  and  morale  of  the  plant  broken  down,  the 
economic  advantage  of  accident  prevention  becomes 
apparent.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  good  illumination  would 
probably  prevent  25  per  cent,  of  the  avoidable  accidents. 


88  SAFETY 

At  the  Congress  International  des  Maladies  Profes- 
sionelles  held  in  Brussels  in  1910  a  special  recommenda- 
tion was  made  for  adequate  lighting  of  dangerous  ma- 
chinery. The  Department  Committee  on  Accidents  in 
Factories  in  Great  Britain  has  also  stated  that  inadequate 
lighting  is  a  "very  frequent  cause  of  accident  and  of  grave 
danger." 

In  many  foundries  the  danger  arising  from  insufficient 
lighting  of  passages  is  constant.  .This  often  causes  men 
to  stumble  over  slight  imperfections  in  the  floor,  and  in 
the  case  of  a  worker  carrying  a  ladle  of  molten  metal  a 
slip  of  this  kind  has  serious  consequences.  When  a  man's 
eyes  have  been  dazzled  by  looking  at  molten  metal  he 
cannot  see  where  he  is  going.  The  frequency  of  accidents 
among  men  working  overtime  at  night  or  in  the  early 
morning  in  ship-building  yards  is  ascribed  to  the  difficulty 
of  seeing  what  takes  place  by  the  feeble  light  available. 
A  bright  light  placed  at  the  top  of  a  flight  of  stairs  or  in 
front  of  some  obstacle  may  actually  be  the  cause  of  a  man 
stumbling  over  it,  owing  to  his  eyes  being  dazzled.  This 
occurred  only  recently,  when  a  man  walked  off  a  platform 
directly  under  a  strong  light  and  was  killed.  Many  other 
instances  of  the  way  in  which  imperfect  lighting  leads  to 
accidents  could  be  mentioned. 

Besides  the  avoidance  of  dazzling  lights  as  before  men- 
tioned, the  direction  from  which  the  light  comes  is  very 
important.  In  all  establishments  where  the  hand  is  held 
quite  close  to  the  sharp  cutting-edge  of  a  tool,  a  heavy 
shadow  momentarily  obscuring  the  tool,  may  not  only 
lead  to  spoiled  work  but  also  to  mutilation  of  the  opera- 
tor's hand. 

Good  illumination  in  mines  is,  of  course,  supremely 
important.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  one  of  the  most 


ILLUMINATION  89 

effective  safeguards  against  accidents.  The  question  of 
the  peculiar  conditions  prevailing  in  mines  and  their 
relation  to  eyesight  is  a  vital  one,  as  it  affects  such  a  large 
percentage  of  the  working  population.  Recent  concern 
has  been  caused  by  the  spread  of  a  nervous  affection  of  the 
eye  known  as  nystagmus.  According  to  the  opinions  of 
certain  celebrated  physicians,  the  affection  is  due  largely 
to  the  defective  illumination  produced  by  the  miner's 
lamp. 

In  a  paper  recently  presented  by  Dr.  Llewellyn  before 
the  Royal  Society,  London,  he  states  that  in  one  year, 
1,6 1 8  men  received  compensation  due  to  nystagmus, 
which  is  now  coming  to  be  regarded  as  an  industrial 
disease.  First  among  causes  of  the  affection  he  placed 
defective  illumination.  An  important  suggestion  is  that 
"the  presence  of  nystagmus,  unsuspected  or  otherwise, 
may  often  be  the  cause  of  what  is  not  unnaturally  attrib- 
uted to  deliberate  negligence."  In  other  words,  a  defect 
of  vision  of  this  kind,  besides  being  a  source  of  loss  to  the 
employer  and  suffering  to  the -victim,  may  indirectly  en- 
danger many  lives  and  constitute  a  grave  source  of 
danger. 

The  lighting  conditions  in  many  mines  do  not  favor 
maximum  production  or  the  safety  and  health  of  mine 
workers. 

The  open-flame  torch,  with  its  uncertain  light  and  ob- 
jectionable smoke,  is  a  constant  source  of  danger  because  of 
the  frequent  outpouring  of  gases  as  the  vein  is  mined. 
The  Davy  Safety  Lamp,  if  not  broken  by  careless  handling, 
eliminates  this  danger,  but  it  is  at  the  expense  of  illumina- 
tion. 

From  time  to  time  inventors  have  endeavored  to  solve 
the  problem  by  portable  electric  lamps  of  various  designs, 


go  SAFETY 

the  electricity  being  supplied  by  primary  or  secondary 
batteries. 

The  inherent  defects  of  primary  batteries,  however, 
are  greatly  increased  when  an  endeavor  is  made  to  con- 
struct them  of  small  compass  and  light  weight,  with 
sufficient  watt-hour  capacity  to  "burn"  an  incandescent 
lamp  for  any  length  of  time.  Then,  too,  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  constant  renewal  of  the  zincs  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  wearer's  clothing  by  the  leaking  or  spilling  of 
the  acid  have  served  to  remove  these  batteries  from 
serious  consideration. 

The  lead-sulphuric-acid  storage  battery  has  also  proved 
unsatisfactory,  because  the  virulence  of  the  acid  permits 
the  use  only  of  hard  rubber  or  like  substance  as  a  container. 
The  nature  of  such  substances  makes  it  practically  impos- 
sible to  keep  a  vessel  liquid-tight  when  subjected  to  the 
rough  handling  incidental  to  portable  use. 

The  weight  of  lead  also  militates  against  the  use  of 
such  a  device.  The  chemical  and  mechanical  weaknesses 
of  a  lead  battery — the  necessity  of  the  frequent  measure- 
ment of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte,  the  constant 
care  lest  the  cells  be  overcharged  or  left  in  a  charged  or 
discharged  condition  for  too  long  a  time,  the  corrosion  of 
metal  parts  and  adjacent  fixtures  by  the  gases  evolved 
or  the  escape  of  the  solution  —  all  of  these  consid- 
erations have  scarcely  recommended  a  lead  battery  for 
portable  use  by  men  engaged  in  the  roughest  kind  of 
work. 

The  plan  of  making  the  electrolyte  in  gelatinous  form 
to  overcome  the  leakage,  has  long  since  been  shown  im- 
practicable, as  such  a  composition  is  soon  dried  by  de- 
composition of  the  water  when  charging,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  make  the  jelly  absorb  water  when  once  dried.  Among 


ILLUMINATION  91 

other  disadvantages,  cracks  form,  and,  becoming  filled  up 
with  sediment,  result  in  short  circuits. 

The  Edison  electric  safety  lanterns  are  the  culmination 
of  years  of  persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  their  inventor, 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  to  solve  the  difficult  problem  of  safe 
mine  illumination. 

In  the  Edison  storage-battery  lamp  the  elements  in  the 
potash  solution  are  held  by  a  strong  nickel-steel  container, 
hermetically  sealed,  except  at  one  miniature  outlet  for 
the  escape  of  harmless  gases  which  are  given  off  when  the 
battery  is  charged.  The  container  and  outlet  are  so 
constructed  that  even  when  the  cell  is  violently  shaken 
and  inverted  the  solution  cannot  escape.  The  gases  given 
off  on  charge  do  not  contain  any  substance  to  corrode  the 
metal  parts,  nor  is  any  injury  done  the  cell  when  over- 
charged for  a  short  or  long  period.  The  cell  can  remain 
charged,  semi-charged,  or  discharged  for  an  indefinite 
period  without  injury.  The  nickel-steel  container  is 
proof  against  rough  handling. 

Specific-gravity  readings  are  not  necessary  because  the 
inexpensive  solution  is  supposed  to  be  emptied  out  and 
replaced  with  new  solution  after  about  nine  or  ten  months 
of  continuous  service. 

There  are  no  insulation  troubles  with  the  Edison 
electric  safety  lamp,  no  sediment  to  be  cleaned  out,  no 
renewal  of  plates  or  separators,  no  buckling  or  growing 
of  plates;  nothing  but  a  practical  steel  tank  for  the 
storage  of  electrical  energy  for  use  when  and  how  the 
operator  needs  it. 

The  battery  consists  of  two  Edison  cells.  The  twin- 
conductor  flexible  cord  is  provided  at  one  end  with  a 
terminal  which,  when  shoved  into  the  socket  on  top  of  the 
battery  case,  becomes  fastened  in  such  a  manner  that  it 


92  SAFETY 

is  impossible  to  disconnect  it  until  the  lock  on  the  side  of 
the  case  has  been  removed  and  the  lock  bar  in  the  top 
withdrawn.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  for  a  miner  to 
cause  a  spark  by  disconnecting  his  wire  in  the  mine. 

The  cap  lamp  is  fitted  with  a  reflector,  a  tungsten  lamp, 
a  socket  for  supporting  the  lamp  and  reflector,  and  a  hook 
to  fit  into  the  regulation  cap.  The  reflector  is  designed 
to  distribute  the  light  over  the  proper  area  so  as  to  allow 
the  maximum  illumination.  The  lamp  will  burn  on  one 
charge  continuously  for  ten  hours;  in  an  emergency,  up 
to  fifteen  hours. 

The  battery  case  is  attached  by  a  belt  to  the  back  of 
the  miner,  the  flexible  cord  leading  upward  through  a 
guide  in  the  back  of  the  cap  to  the  lamp  attached  to  the 
leather  support  in  the  front  of  the  cap,  thus  leaving  the 
arms  free.  The  complete  outfit,  without  the  cap  and  belt, 
weighs  only  three  pounds  and  a  quarter. 

During  the  last  few  years  there  have  been  a  number  of 
valuable  conferences  and  reports  on  the  subject  of  factory 
lighting.  Much  interest  has  been  taken  in  illumination 
by  the  Home  Office  in  Great  Britain,  as  exemplified  in 
the  recent  reports  of  H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories, 
and  the  emphasis  laid  on  good  lighting  by  the  recent 
Departmental  Committee  on  Accidents.  The  Royal 
Society  of  Arts,  which  for  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  has  made  a  practice  of  encouraging  investiga- 
tion on  problems  of  the  day,  has  been  instrumental  in 
offering  prizes  for  safety  appliances. 

Dr.  Thomas  Oliver  states:  "As  regards  lighting  of 
workrooms,  a  condition  of  health  almost  as  important 
as  ventilation,  several  of  the  more  important  countries 
have  provisions.  Germany,  Austria,  Holland,  and 
France  by  their  respective  industrial  codes  recognize 


THE    EDISON    PORTABLE    SAFETY   LAMP  THE  EDISON  SAFETY  LAMP  FOR  MINERS 

FOR   MINERS 


SAFETY    DEVICES    FOR    THE    ELECTRICAL 
A    NEW    YORK   EDISON   EMERGENCY   KIT  WORKERS 


*•   •••*•*]•«**••*;      *  •*  *       • 


ILLUMINATION  93 

sufficient  light  as  an  essential  condition  of  health  in 
factories." 

In  Milan  the  first  Institute  of  Industrial  Hygiene,  under 
the  supervision  of  Dr.  L.  Devoto,  is  now  directing  its 
attention  to  the  industrial  importance  of  good  illumina- 
tion. The  German  factory  law  mentions  "sufficient 
light"  as  one  of  the  conditions  to  which  attention  must 
be  paid.  The  care  taken  in  this  respect  by  German  manu- 
facturers is,  without  doubt,  due  less  to  the  law  or  any 
compulsion,  than  to  their  own  recognition  of  the  impor- 
tance of  good  light  in  promoting  efficient  work. 

A  great  step  has  been  taken  by  the  French  Government 
in  the  appointment  of  a  committee  on  the  hygienic  aspect 
of  illumination,  composed  of  prominent  physiologists,  ocu- 
lists, engineers,  physicists,  and  inspectors  of  factories. 

The  scope  of  this  committee  includes  the  determina- 
tion, from  the  hygienic  standpoint,  of  the  composition 
and  quality  of  combustible  illuminants;  the  effects  of  in- 
jurious gases  and  the  amount  of  heat  developed;  the 
effect  upon  vision  of  the  various  methods  of  artificial 
lighting;  establishing  a  minimum  for  normal  require- 
ments of  vision;  practical  methods  of  measuring  light, 
and  applying  systems  suitable  to  the  leading  branches 
of  industry. 

Of  unofficial  character  but  of  incalculable  value  has 
been  the  work  which  the  Illuminating  Engineering  So- 
ciety in  the  United  States  has  taken  up  so  actively 
through  its  various  committees,  and  the  results  of  which 
have  been  gathered  in  its  transactions  as  authoritative 
data  on  the  hygienic  aspects  of  lighting. 

Very  recently  the  Illuminating  Engineering  Society,  at 
the  request  of  the  New  York  State  Factory  Investigating 
Commission,  appointed  a  special  committee  of  physiol- 


94  SAFETY 

ogists,  lighting  experts,  engineers,  and  industrialists  to 
co-operate  with  the  Commission  in  the  preparation  of  the 
proposed  bill  relating  to  lighting  in  the  series  of  measures 
for  safety  and  sanitation  in  factories  and  workshops  short- 
ly to  be  submitted  to  the  Legislature. 

This  special  committee  held  two  meetings,  and  pre- 
sented its  report  at  the  public  hearing  on  the  proposed 
bill,  held  in  the  County  Court  House,  New  York  City, 
on  December  6,  1912.  The  recommendations  of  the 
committee,  subscribed  to  by  a  committee  representing 
the  American  Museum  of  Safety,  were  accepted  by  the 
Commission  at  a  later  meeting. 

Three  important  sections  of  the  bill  are  as  follows: 

All  passageways,  and  all  moving  parts  of  machinery  unless  properly 
and  sufficiently  guarded,  where,  on  or  about  which  persons  work  or 
pass  or  may  have  to  work  or  pass  in  emergencies,  and  all  other  portions 
of  the  factory  that  the  Commission  of  Labor  may  require,  shall  be  kept 
properly  and  sufficiently  lighted  during  working-hours. 

A  proper  and  adequate  light  shall  be  kept  burning  by  the  owner  or 
lessee  in  the  public  hallways  near  the  stairs  upon  the  entrance-door, 
and  upon  the  other  floors  on  every  workday  in  the  year  from  the  time 
when  the  building  is  opened  for  use  in  the  morning  until  the  time  it  is 
closed  in  the  evening,  except  at  times  when  the  influx  of  natural  light 
shall  make  artificial  light  unnecessary. 

All  workrooms  shall  be  properly  and  adequately  lighted  during 
working-hours.  Artificial  illuminants  in  every  workroom  shall  be 
installed,  arranged,  and  used  so  that  the  light  furnished  will  at  all 
times  be  sufficient  and  adequate  for  the  work  carried  on  therein,  due 
regard  being  given  to  the  prevention  of  strain  on  the  vision  and  glare 
in  the  eyes  of  the  workers.  The  advisory  board  to  the  Department  of 
Labor  may,  pursuant  to  the  provision  of  this  chapter,  make  and  from 
time  to  time  change  or  modify  rules  and  regulations  to  provide  for 
adequate  and  sufficient  natural  and  artificial  lighting  facilities  in  all 
factories. 

All  American  industrialists  could  profit  by  recommenda- 
tions made  by  such  a  commission  composed  of  their 
compatriots  familiar  with  our  conditions.  International 


ILLUMINATION  95 

co-operation  would  be  of  immense  assistance  through  com- 
parative data.  In  order  to  arrive  at  conclusions  which 
will  be  accepted  throughout  the  entire  civilized  world 
it  is  essential  at  each  step  to  have  corroborative  evi- 
dence by  various  authorities,  and  to  make  sure  that  the 
needs  of  different  countries  are  borne  in  mind.  It  is  also 
important  to  have  available  the  results  of  researches  made 
in  the  different  trades  independently,  so  as  to  avoid  being 
misled  by  generalizations  from  the  tests  of  a  few  in- 
dividuals. 

The  question  of  adequate  lighting  installations  through- 
out iron  and  steel  plants  presents  for  the  illuminating 
engineer  so  many  more  widely  divergent  problems  for 
his  solution  than  are  encountered  in  other  fields,  that  a 
special  presentation,  covering  work  in  this  particular 
direction,  seems  advisable.  Upon  the  solution  of  these 
problems  depend  in  great  degree  the  amount  of  produc- 
tion and  the  cost  of  this  production  based  largely  upon 
the  safety,  the  comfort,  and  the  consequent  efficiency  of 
the  employee. 

An  iron  and  steel  plant  demands  good  illumination  for 
a  great  range  of  departments  and  processes,  through  the 
executive  offices,  drafting-rooms,  stock-yards,  ore-bridges, 
blast-furnaces  and  gas -houses,  bessemer,  open -hearth, 
blooming,  rail,  skelp,  slabbing,  galvanizing,  pipe,  and  wire 
mills,  boiler  and  power  houses,  foundries,  machine  and 
other  shops  to  its  tracks  and  yards. 

As  the  main  object  of  operating  a  plant  by  night  as 
well  as  by  day  is  to  double  the  output,  good  illumination 
at  night  is  particularly  necessary  if  the  working  condi- 
tions are  to  approximate  those  of  the  daytime.  When  a 
reliable  system  of  artificial  lighting  is  installed,  the  plant 
may  be  sure  of  continuous  and  satisfactory  operation, 


96  SAFETY 

and  the  same  number  of  night  operators  may  turn  out 
the  same  amount  of  finished  product  as  the  day  shift. 

As  a  result  of  a  study  of  lighting  conditions  in  a  number 
of  mills  and  plants,  it  was  found  that  the  increase  in 
efficiency  due  to  good  illumination  was  very  marked,  as 
measured  by  the  output  of  the  operators  and  the  ma- 
chines. 

Considering  a  man  and  his  machine  or  tool  as  a  com- 
bination in  the  science  of  production,  if  the  efficiency  of 
the  workman  is  increased  by  better  working  conditions 
the  efficiency  of  the  combination  is  likewise  increased,  the 
man  and  his  machine  producing  a  larger  and  better 
output,  with  a  greater  return  to  the  employer  on  the 
worker's  wages  and  the  cost  of  the  machine. 

As  materials  form  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  cost 
of  production,  good  illumination  results  in  economy  of 
production  through  reducing  the  loss  due  to  damage  or 
destruction  by  improper  manipulation  or  accidental 
spoilage. 

In  iron  and  steel  plants  especially  is  the  adoption  of  good 
illumination  an  economical  safeguard  against  accidents, 
as  the  work  is  fairly  hazardous.  Many  of  the  workers 
are  of  foreign  birth  and  unable  to  read  or  understand  the 
English  language,  so  that  spoken  or  written  cautions 
convey  little  meaning.  The  cost  of  accidents  throughout 
many  plants  in  the  course  of  a  year  can  be  directly  or 
indirectly  charged  to  inadequate  lighting. 

So  important  are  the  lighting  requirements  of  iron  and 
steel  works  that  they  are  receiving  the  special  study  of 
an  increasing  number  of  iron  and  steel  electrical  engineers. 
Several  of  the  large  manufacturers  of  lamps  and  lighting 
appliances  maintain  illuminating  engineering  laboratories 
and  a  large  force  of  expert  engineers  whose  duty  it  is  to 


ILLUMINATION  97 

investigate  conditions  and  to  make  recommendations 
covering  the  particular  requirements.  This  expert  advice 
is  usually  furnished  free  of  charge. 

While  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  by  physiolo- 
gists and  lighting  engineers,  there  are  very  few  generally 
accepted  practical  rules  by  which  inspectors,  representa- 
tives of  insurance  companies,  managers,  and  superin- 
tendents can  be  guided. 

However,  there  are  several  channels  through  which 
much  valuable  information  may  be  obtained.  Factory 
inspectors,  as  a  preliminary  to  agreement  on  definite  rules, 
might  be  instructed  by  the  governments  in  their  respec- 
tive countries  to  take  note  of  the  lighting  conditions  in 
the  factories  visited,  as  well  as  the  condition  of  health  of 
the  workers,  in  order  to  determine  the  relation  between 
the  two.  In  the  case  of  trades  known  to  be  trying  to  the 
eyes  particulars  of  the  illumination  and  also  of  the  eye- 
sight of  the  operators  should  be  noted.  It  is  possible  that 
occasionally  the  testing  of  the  eyesight  of  the  workers 
might  meet  with  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  employers, 
or  that  employees  might  be  found  reluctant  to  submit  to 
the  test,  fearing  dismissal  if  their  defects  of  vision  became 
known.  In  such  cases  the  inspector  should  be  provided 
with  credentials  authorizing  him  to  make  such  investiga- 
tions, and  explaining  that  they  are  carried  out  for  statis- 
tical purposes  and  that  the  results  will  not  be  used  to 
the  disadvantage  of  employer  or  employee. 

Such  defects  as  misplacing  of  lamps,  the  use  of  im- 
perfectly shaded  illuminants  liable  to  be  prejudicial  to 
vision,  and  inadequate  lighting  for  dangerous  machinery 
should  be  noted.  In  addition,  as  far  as  possible  actual 
measurements  of  illumination  should  be  made  to  supple- 
ment personal  impressions.  Although  not  yet  perfect,  in- 


98  SAFETY 

struments  for  the  measurement  of  illumination  have  been 
very  much  improved. 

Similar  records  should  be  kept  regarding  accidents. 
This  matter  is  of  considerable  importance  to  insurance 
companies,  beneficial  societies,  and  labor  associations 
which  are  concerned  with  compensation  claims.  It  may 
be  suggested  that  when  an  inquiry  is  made  into  the 
circumstances  of  an  accident  particulars  should  be  taken 
of  the  general  lighting  conditions  at  the  time  and,  if 
possible,  actual  measurements  of  the  illumination. 

If  it  could  be  done  it  would  be  to  the  benefit  of  several 
companies  to  arrange  that  an  expert  in  measuring  illumi- 
nation as  well  as  a  physiologist  should  work  together  in 
making  tests. 

An  improvement  in  the  illumination  of  factories  would 
benefit  insurance  companies  in  that  it  would  diminish  the 
risk  of  accidents  to  persons  and  machinery.  Insurance 
companies  should  allow  specially  favorable  rates  to  any 
business  in  which  the  illumination  meets  a  prescribed 
standard.  The  employees  would  certainly  be  benefited, 
as  they  would  work  with  less  risk  and  under  conditions 
tending  to  greater  ease  and  efficiency.  In  this  way  the 
employer  would  soon  recoup  himself  for  the  cost  of  im- 
proving illumination.  In  one  company  43  per  cent,  time 
loss  through  injury  or  ill  health  was  reduced  to  10  per 
cent.,  a  result  due  largely  to  improved  illumination. 

It  is  to  the  interest  of  an  employer  to  secure  ade- 
quate illumination  on  account  of  improved  output  and 
quality  of  the  work  as  well  as  the  contentment  of  the 
workers.  The  National  Electric  Light  Association  re- 
cently sent  out  a  circular  to  a  number  of  mills  and  gen- 
eral manufacturing  concerns  covering  the  entire  country 
geographically,  with  a  view  to  determining  the  attitude  of 


ILLUMINATION  99 

industrial-plant  managers  on  the  subject  of  scientific 
lighting.  Of  two  hundred  and  nine  replies  which  were 
analyzed  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  stated  that  recent 
improvement  had  been  made  in  the  lighting,  the  change 
generally  including  the  use  of  high-efficiency  incandescent 
lamps.  Thirty-one  stated  that  the  quality  of  their  prod- 
uct has  improved  materially  as  the  result  of  better  light, 
and  sixty  attribute  to  the  same  cause  an  increase  in  their 
output.  Only  seven  say  that  they  can  trace  no  appreci- 
able results.  In  the  matter  of  efficiency  and  economy  of 
the  lighting  itself  forty-six  plants  report  that  as  a  result 
of  substituting  modern  illuminants  for  older  equipment, 
they  note  a  decided  reduction  in  their  costs,  and  ninety- 
seven  mention  that  the  new  illumination  is  a  notable  im- 
provement over  previous  methods. 

Twenty- six,  or  16  per  cent.,  of  the  replies  mention 
specifically  that  the  better  lighting  satisfies  the  operatives 
and  overcomes  many  complaints. 

The  census  experts  give  i  per  cent,  as  the  gross  spoilage 
in  American  manufactures  in  the  year  1909,  an  item  of 
approximately  $150,000,000.  Of  this  great  amount  75 
per  cent,  is  said  to  have  been  made  under  artificial  light. 
The  experts  agree  that  25  per  cent.,  or  $28,125,000,  of  the 
spoilage  could  have  been  avoided  by  good  illumination. 
The  relation  of  seconds  to  lighting  finds  illustration  in  the 
cotton  industry.  Summer-made  goods  in  certain  classes 
are  invariably  listed  at  a  higher  price  than  those  made 
during  the  winter,  the  explanation  being,  that  owing  to 
the  inferior  artificial  light  in  winter,  the  quality  of  work- 
manship is  not  so  good. 

The  initial  expense  of  an  improved  lighting  system  in  a 
factory  is  very  soon  offset  by  the  gain  in  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  work.  Even  an  apparently  expensive 


ioo  SAFETY 

equipment  may  soon  prove  true  economy.  In  the  expe- 
rience of  one  company,  it  was  found  that  on  account  of 
insufficient  light  the  men  lost  from  one  to  two  hours 
daily  on  dark  days,  a  complete  loss  of  wages  during  that 
time. 

A  large  textile  mill  in  New  England  employs  a  con- 
sulting illuminating  engineer  to  report  on  the  lighting 
of  the  mill,  with  special  reference  to  cutting  down  the  cost 
of  lighting.  The  mill  purchased  electric  current  for 
lighting  at  a  cost  of  $10,000  a  year.  The  consulting 
engineer  reported  that  the  illumination  was  inadequate 
and  poorly  diffused,  and  recommended  an  increase  of 
200  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  electric  current  used  for 
lighting.  The  installation  was  remodeled  in  accordance 
with  the  recommendations  in  the  report,  and  the  owners 
are  now  convinced  that  the  increased  expenditure  for 
light  has  resulted  in  ultimate  economy. 

From  practically  every  point  of  view  of  the  employer, 
therefore,  good  illumination  offers  convincing  arguments 
of  economic  advantage,  to  say  nothing  of  the  worker's 
comfort  and  safety,  freedom  from  strain,  and  increased 
efficiency. 


VII 

FIRE 

FREQUENTLY  in  laying  out  systems  of  fire  protec- 
tion the  organization  and  training  of  a  fire  brigade 
fails  to  receive  the  consideration  which  its  importance 
deserves.  The  most  costly  installation  of  pumps,  water 
mains,  and  hydrants  will  prove  of  little  value  unless 
handled  with  skill  and  efficiency.  The  principle  under- 
lying a  fire-brigade  organization  is  fundamentally  one  of 
mutual  protection;  to  the  manager,  the  safeguarding  and 
preservation  of  his  plant;  to  the  employee,  the  per- 
manency of  work  and  wage.  When  properly  developed, 
such  an  organization  promotes  in  some  degree  amicable 
relations  and  co-operation  between  the  management  and 
the  employees. 

Private  fire  brigades  should  be  organized  under  a  con- 
stitution, with  their  own  by-laws,  and  with  provisions  for 
regular  meetings.  Conduct  of  the  men  should  be  subject 
to  discipline,  and  acts  of  unusual  merit  involving  personal 
risk  and  endurance  be  fittingly  rewarded. 

In  department  stores,  theaters,  and  similar  buildings, 
wrong  constructional  details  will  tend  to  limit  effective 
work  of  the  brigade  in  extinguishing  small  blazes,  and 
fire-fighting  of  this  type,  as  a  rule,  will  be  confined  to 
the  interior  of  the  building.  In  mills,  shops,  and  plants, 
including  railroad  terminal  yards,  any  operation  for  fire 
protection  will  be  mostly  in  the  open,  and  generally  of 
more  extended  character.  Any  plan  of  organization  to  be 


'ior2  SAFETY 

practical  should  provide  for  the  features  peculiar  to  each 
of  these  classes. 

The  efficiency  of  a  fire  brigade  will  be  almost  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  care  and  judgment  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  its  members,  based  upon  discernment  of  char- 
acter and  a  somewhat  intimate  knowledge  of  the  men  and 
their  personal  habits.  The  superintendent  or  manager, 
in  performing  this  important  duty,  should  have  the 
assistance  of  the  shop  foremen  and  subheads  of  depart- 
ments. The  first  consideration  is  loyalty.  Only  those 
men  whose  sympathies  and  interests  are  well  established 
should  be  considered.  Fitness  for  fire  -  brigade  service 
requires  a  strong,  robust  constitution,  unimpaired  sight 
and  hearing,  some  power  of  endurance,  ability  to  think 
clearly  and  quickly  in  emergencies,  and  a  high  degree  of 
self-control. 

The  age  of  members  should  range  between  eighteen  and 
forty-five  years;  they  should  be  able  to  speak  and  readily 
understand  English;  it  is  essential  that  they  also  have  an 
exact  knowledge  of  the  character  and  construction  of  the 
buifding  or  plant  which  they  are  to  help  protect.  This 
knowledge  should  include  location  of  stairways,  elevator- 
shafts,  and  the  means  of  approach  to  attics  and  base- 
ments. It  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  members  of  the 
brigade  should  live  as  near  the  plant  as  possible. 

The  chief  of  brigade  should  be  some  one  always  in 
authority,  in  order  to  command  the  respect  and  obedience 
of  the  men.  His  duties  should  be  such  as  to  insure  his 
presence  at  the  plant  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  prefer- 
ably a  master  mechanic,  store  or  factory  manager,  or  his 
active  assistant.  The  assistant  chief  should  have  some 
practical  fire-fighting  knowledge  in  addition  to  his  me- 
chanical training  and  experience. 


FIRE    BRIGADE    AND    MOTOR    FIRE    TRUCK    AT    THE     PLANT    OF    FRIEDRICK    BEYER, 

LEVERKiiSEN 


THE   NATIONAL   CASH   REGISTER   COMPANY'S   FIRE   BRIGADE 


FIRE  103 

As  captains,  men  with  mechanical  knowledge  are  to 
be  preferred;  they,  too,  must  possess  sound  and  reliable 
judgment,  and  be  capable  of  acting  quickly  in  emergen- 
cies. For  upon  them  will  devolve  direct  supervision  of 
the  active  work. 

Company  organization  should  afford  the  men  special 
knowledge  and  experience  in  their  respective  duties.  For 
the  average  shop  plant  there  should  be  three  separate 
companies — viz.,  hose,  chemical  engine,  and  ladder  com- 
pany. But  where  buildings  are  provided  with  a  complete 
equipment  of  stationary  ladders  the  latter  company  may 
be  omitted.  For  the  department  store  and  factory  there 
should  be  a  chemical  -  engine  company  and  standpipe 
company.  g$j  . 

A  special  detail  of  men  should  be  designated  to  handle 
chemical  extinguishers,  fire-pails,  and  similar  equipment. 
All  employees,  however,  should  be  familiar  with  the  use 
and  handling  of  such  apparatus. 

A  salvage  corps  should  be  maintained,  with  the  special 
duty  of  protecting  stock  and  machinery  from  water  or 
other  damage,  both  during  and  after  a  fire.  For  this 
work,  men  of  at  least  average  intelligence  are  required; 
they  should  be  especially  instructed  as  to  the  proper 
course  to  be  followed  in  protecting  the  most  valuable 
property  first. 

Attached  to  each  fire-brigade  organization  and  subject 
to  the  orders  of  the  chief,  or  assistant  chief,  there  should 
be  an  experienced  plumber  connected  with  the  plant  or 
store  and  familiar  with  the  distribution  system,  location 
and  operation  of  all  valves;  also  a  practical  electrician 
having  first-hand  knowledge  of  all  conductors,  their  volt- 
age, and  of  the  location  and  operation  of  all  protective 
devices. 


104  SAFETY 

At  plants  where  the  fire  service  is  supplied  by  fire 
pumps,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  engineer  in  charge  and 
his  assistants  enrolled  in  the  fire-brigade  membership,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  in  close  touch  with  the  purposes 
and  objects  of  the  brigade.  During  fires,  and  except 
when  prearranged  for  fire-drills,  the  engineer  and  assist- 
ant should  remain  on  duty  at  the  pumps. 

High  efficiency  for  a  fire  brigade  will  depend  mainly 
upon  the  frequency  and  character  of  the  drills,  which 
serve  a  double  purpose — namely,  promptness  in  reaching 
the  point  of  danger  and  practice  in  handling  of  apparatus. 

Alarms  should  be  sounded  unannounced  at  irregular 
intervals,  at  a  time  unknown  to  the  men.  There  should 
be,  in  addition  to  the  false  alarm,  another  at  regular 
stated  intervals,  semi-monthly,  at  a  time  known  in  ad- 
vance. These  latter  drills  preferably  should  be  at  an 
hour  suited  to  the  convenience  of  the  business  or  plant 
operations.  While  these  drills  designed  for  practice 
work  with  the  apparatus  consume  somewhat  more  time, 
they  offer  the  only  means  for  thorough  training  in  fire- 
department  work. 

In  the  case  of  department  stores  and  other  similar 
risks  where  the  public  is  generally  present  in  large  num- 
bers, the  sounding  of  a  fire-alarm  might  result  in  a  panic, 
and  would  therefore  be  impracticable.  For  these  risks 
fire-drills  will  necessarily  have  to  be  held  after  the  close 
of  business  hours. 

When  shop  or  other  industrial  plants  are  operated  at 
night,  provision  should  be  made  for  fire-protection  equip- 
ment and  drills  similar  to  that  of  the  day  force.  Fre- 
quently for  large  plants  remote  from  city  or  town  protec- 
tion, operating  only  a  day  shift,  efficient  night  fire-brigade 
service  may  be  had  by  organizing  and  drilling  the  watch- 


FIRE  105 

men,  cleaners,  and  repair  men  who  may  be  regularly  em- 
ployed at  night.  These  men  should  be  subject  to  the 
same  general  rules  governing  the  day  brigade,  and  regu- 
larly drilled  to  insure  efficient  handling  of  apparatus. 

For  the  regular  semi-monthly  drills  the  brigade  work 
should  be  thorough  in  every  respect,  closely  approximat- 
ing actual  fire  conditions.  It  should  embrace  the  making 
of  connections  with  hydrants,  unreeling  and  stretching 
hose,  breaking  and  making  couplings,  carrying  hose  up 
ladders  and  over  roofs  and  through  the  interior  of  build- 
ings, reaching  at  various  times  inaccessible  and  out-of-the- 
way  places,  including  sub-basements,  basements,  attics, 
and  all  concealed  floor  and  wall  spaces.  The  drills  should 
cover  all  buildings  and  departments,  in  order  that  the 
men  may  acquire  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  interior 
arrangement  and  construction,  including  stairways,  exits, 
and  elevator-shafts,  together  with  location  of  all  hydrants 
and  connections. 

It  is  important  that  the  men  should  become  practised 
in  holding  the  play-pipe  and  in  moving  and  carrying  the 
hose-line  while  under  pressure.  As  a  general  rule,  water 
should  be  turned  on  for  all  practice  work,  except  possibly 
during  freezing  weather.  At  times,  when  conditions  are 
favorable,  a  sufficient  number  of  hose-lines  should  be 
stretched  to  test  the  maximum  working  capacity  of  the 
distributing  system. 

The  presence  of  electric  conductors  near  a  building 
may  operate  to  hinder  the  work  of  the  fire  brigade,  through 
fear  of  contact  with  the  hose  stream.  In  order  that  the 
men  may  not  be  unnecessarily  exposed  to  these  dangers, 
and  at  the  same  time  that  the  actual  danger  may  not  be 
over-estimated,  and  thereby  delay  the  work  of  extinguish- 
ment, it  is  important  that  the  men  be  fully  informed  of 


106  SAFETY 

actual  conditions.  It  would  be  of  considerable  advantage 
to  give  demonstrations  of  these  conductors  where  there 
would  be  no  harmful  result. 

It  has  been  shown,  as  a  result  of  a  series  of  tests,  that 
streams  of  fresh  water  may  be  played  on  alternating- 
current  conductors  under  certain  conditions  without  in- 
jury to  the  pipemen.  With  a  one-inch  nozzle  at  a  dis- 
tance of  ten  feet  from  an  alternating-current  conductor 
carrying  4,600  volts  there  was  no  appreciable  effect  be- 
yond a  slight  shock  to  the  hand.  In  these  tests  one  side 
of  the  circuit  was  thoroughly  grounded  and  the  fire  stream 
played  on  the  other  side,  which  was  suspended  in  the  air 
and  thoroughly  insulated. 

The  National  Fire  Protection  Association  is  authority 
for  the  statement,  that  the  total  annual  loss  of  life  in  the 
United  States  from  fire  causes  is  1,500.  In  nine  disasters 
alone  during  the  past  six  years  approximately  1,400  per- 
sons have  been  killed  outright  in  addition  to  numberless 
maimed  and  injured.  It  is  not  claimed  that  all  of  this 
needless  sacrifice  of  life  could  have  been  wholly  avoided 
by  the  simple  expedient  of  a  fire-drill,  as  in  some  instances 
whole  audiences  were  trapped,  owing  largely  to  inadequate 
and  defective  exit  arrangements.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  the  absence  of  any  adequate  provision  for  effective 
regulation  and  control  was  an  active  contributory  cause 
of  the  panic  following  discovery  of  the  fire. 

The  primary  object  of  a  fire-drill  is  to  prevent  panic 
conditions  by  the  enforcement  of  regular  and  systematic 
practice  in  the  exercise  of  restraint  and  self-control.  In 
this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  these  re- 
sults, which  are  purely  pyschological,  are  achieved  by  a 
series  of  evolutions  exclusively  physical  in  character. 

The  fire-drill  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  determina- 


FIRE  107 

tion  of  means  and  methods  of  utilizing  to  the  best  advan- 
tage such  facilities  as  are  provided,  and  should  aim  to 
adapt  itself  to  existing  conditions.  It  will  often  be  found, 
however,  that  the  institution  of  fire-drill  practice  will  re- 
veal conditions  previously  unsuspected  and  point  the 
way  for  rearranging  and  improving  the  means  of  escape. 
In  devising  a  system  of  fire-drills  the  first  consideration 
is  to  recognize  the  two  classes  of  persons  whom  the  drills 
are  to  protect:  first,  those  who  are  regularly  present  on 
the  premises,  such  as  factory  operatives  or  children  at- 
tending school;  second,  the  general  public. 

Those  disasters  which  have  been  most  prolific  in  fatali- 
ties belong  to  the  second  class,  and  largely  comprise  build- 
ings where  the  public  is  assembled  in  large  numbers,  and 
where  congestion  and  overcrowding  may  be  of  frequent 
occurrence.  The  large  percentage  of  women  and  children 
in  these  gatherings  makes  it  doubly  imperative  that  every 
possible  safeguard  be  provided. 

All  factory  drills  should'  be  under  the  direction  of  a 
supervisory  organization  constituted  as  follows:  Chief 
of  fire-drill,  floor  chiefs,  room  captains,  stairway  guards, 
and  inspectors.  These  positions  should  be  filled  by  male 
employees  wherever  possible. 

The  chief  of  fire-drill  should  have  general  charge  of  all 
matters  pertaining  to  fire-drills,  practice  manceuvers  and 
organization  and  the  appointment  of  persons  to  fill  the 
positions  above  mentioned.  He  should  fix  the  time  for 
holding  drills,  and  rigidly  enforce  measures  of  discipline 
for  failure  on  the  part  of  any  employee  to  fully  observe 
all  the  rules  and  requirements.  Also,  by  personal  in- 
spection he  should  see  that  overcrowding  in  workrooms 
is  prevented,  and  that  sufficient  space  is  given  to  aisles 
and  passageways,  permitting  quick  access  to  exits. 


io8  SAFETY 

Where  department  foremen  or  factory  superintendents 
possess  the  requisite  qualifications,  their  selection  as  floor 
chiefs  is  to  be  preferred.  It  is  important  that  they  be 
men  having  the  trust  and  confidence  of  their  employees 
generally,  with  a  fair  degree  of  self-possession.  It  is  de- 
sirable that  they  possess  the  knowledge  of  more  than  one 
language.  The  floor  chief  should  have  immediate  charge 
of  all  employees  on  his  floor  in  all  matters  pertaining  to 
fire-drills,  enforcing  all  fire-drill  rules,  and  reporting  to 
the  chief  of  fire-drill  any  employee  who  wilfully  neglects 
their  proper  observance.  He  should  personally  supervise 
the  sounding  of  the  general  building  alarm  on  his  floor, 
and  be  responsible  for  the  working  conditions,  seeing  that 
chairs  or  benches  nowhere  obstruct  passage. 

Where  floors  are  subdivided  into  two  or  more  rooms 
the  floor  chief  should  be  assisted  by  the  room  captains. 
For  floors  of  large  area,  the  floor  captains  should  desig- 
nate a  drill  supervisor  for  every  fifty  employees,  to  assist 
in  maintaining  the  necessary  control  and  discipline.  For 
these  latter  positions  where  men  with  the  required  quali- 
fications are  not  available,  it  has  been  found  feasible  to 
make  selections  from  among  the  forewomen. 

Room  captains  should  be  chosen  from  those  highest  in 
authority,  preferably  a  foreman  or  work  boss.  The  same 
general  care  in  their  selection  should  be  exercised  as  in- 
dicated for  the  floor  chiefs.  They  should  perform  the 
same  general  duties  in  their  respective  rooms  as  are  pre- 
scribed for  the  floor  chief,  subject  to  the  latter's  direction 
and  supervision,  excepting  that  they  should  have  no  au- 
thority to  change  the  assignment  of  exits  nor  sound  the 
general  building  alarm  unless  under  direction  of  their 
chief.  Where  rooms  are  equipped  with  drill  gongs  the 
room  captains  should  personally  sound  the  alarm. 


FIRE  109 

Men  are  to  be  preferred  as  stairway  guards,  and  should 
be  strong  and  alert,  capable  of  acting  quickly  in  emer- 
gencies. Two  men  selected  from  every  floor  should  be 
assigned  to  each  exit  or  stairway — one  guard  stationed 
on  the  stair  side  of  the  door  leading  from  the  room,  and 
one  guard  midway  on  staircase  descending  to  the  next 
floor  below.  Where  stair  exits  have  sharp  bends  or  are 
poorly  lighted  additional  guards  should  be  provided.  On 
fire-escapes,  where  conditions  permit,  the  arrangement 
should  be  similar  to  that  outlined  for  stairways,  with  the 
exception  that  the  guards  should  be  stationed  on  the  bal- 
conies or  platforms  instead  of  midway  between  the  floors. 

Guards  should  be  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  floor  chief 
or  room  captains,  and  should  see  that  the  march  from  the 
rooms  and  descending  the  stairway  is  orderly,  without 
crowding,  at  uniform  speed,  with  careful  observance  of 
spacing  between  files.  They  should  be  especially  watchful 
of  persons  stumbling  or  falling,  to  prevent  trampling,  and 
should  be  given  authority  to  halt  the  line  when  necessary. 

An  inspector  from  among  the  operatives  should  be  ap- 
pointed to  examine  each  morning  the  condition  of  all 
stairways,  fire-escapes,  and  roof  exits,  and  to  report  im- 
mediately to  the  chief  of  fire-drill  any  obstruction  found 
or  any  other  unusual  condition.  He  should  also  see  that 
all  doors  leading  to  stairways  or  exits  open  outwardly, 
and  immediately  report  any  found  locked  or  obstructed. 
During  the  winter  season  proper  attention  should  be 
given  fire-escapes  exposed  to  accumulations  of  ice  or 
snow,  and  whenever  such  condition  is  found  immediate 
steps  should  be  taken  for  its  removal.  Provision  should 
also  be  made  for  testing  the  alarm  system  and  all  sig- 
naling devices  every  morning. 

Fire-drills  should  be  held  weekly  without   notice,  at 


no  SAFETY 

different  hours,  and  should  include  all  employees  in  the 
building.  It  is  advisable  that  the  alarms  announcing  the 
drills  for  each  trial  should  originate  on  different  floors, 
in  order  to  afford  practice  in  changing  the  order  of  prece- 
dence for  possession  of  stairways  or  fire-escapes.  Where 
buildings  are  divided  by  fire -walls  having  protected 
openings  arrangements  should  allow  the  transfer  of  all 
the  occupants  on  a  given  floor  in  the  fire  section  to  an  ad- 
joining section  on  the  same  floor,  or  where  provision  is 
made  for  ascending  to  the  roof,  to  exits  that  may  lead  to 
a  safe  retreat  either  on  or  in  an  adjoining  building. 

Drill  practice  should  approximate  military  precision. 
All  drill  movements  should  lead  in  the  direction  of  the 
exits,  and  follow  in  response  to  gong  strokes,  the  first 
indicating  the  floor  from  which  the  alarm  is  given.  Upon 
the  first  stroke  all  operatives  should  immediately  cease 
work,  rise,  and  as  far  as  possible  shut  off  power  from 
machines.  Thereafter  each  succeeding  movement  should 
be  announced  by  single  strokes  on  the  smaller  drill  gongs, 
sounded  by  the  floor  chief  or  the  room  captain. 

Upon  the  first  stroke  of  the  drill  gong  each  operative 
should  remove  the  stock,  chairs,  or  benches  nearest  him 
in  the  aisles,  placing  the  same  either  under  or  on  top  of 
the  work-table  or  machine.  Before  the  sounding  of  the 
second  stroke  all  aisles  and  passageways  should  be  cleared 
of  obstructions  and  operatives  ready  for  line  formation, 
which  should  be  announced  by  the  second  stroke.  Line 
formation  should  consist  of  files  of  two,  using  the  free 
hand  to  raise  the  skirt  to  prevent  tripping  those  in  the 
immediate  rear. 

The  third  stroke  gives  the  signal  to  march  to  the  door 
of  exit  passage,  and  each  file  should  then  move  forward, 
observing  a  uniform  spacing  distance.  The  line  should 


FIRE  in 

halt  at  doorway  on  an  arm-motion  signal  from  either  the 
floor  chief  or  the  room  captain,  otherwise  it  should  continue 
on  to  the  stairway  and  descend,  being  subject  only  to  the 
signals  of  the  stairway  guards. 

Drill  exercises  should  aim  to  bring  into  practice  as  often 
as  possible  all  of  the  signals  as  mentioned,  to  insure  against 
possible  misunderstanding  at  a  critical  time.  Upon  reach- 
ing the  street  the  line  should  be  led  away  to  a  safe  dis- 
tance, to  prevent  crowding  and  confusion  around  the 
exit  and  danger  from  falling  walls.  For  this  purpose 
one  of  the  room  chiefs  or  drill  supervisors  from  the  first 
or  nearest  street  floor  should  be  assigned  to  the  duty  of 
leading  the  line  away  from  the  building.  It  is  urged,  as 
often  as  conditions  will  permit,  that  all  employees  at 
the  close  of  business  be  dismissed  through  the  drill 
exits. 

Elevator  attendants  should  be  instructed  to  take  cars 
immediately  upon  the  first  sound  of  the  building  alarm 
to  the  floor  indicated,  and  hold  themselves  subject  to 
the  orders  of  the  floor  chief. 

In  assigning  exits  where  the  capacity  of  the  fire-escapes 
is  limited,  the  occupants  of  lower  floors  should  be  required 
to  use  the  inside  stairways,  in  order  to  reserve  the  fire- 
escapes  for  the  use  of  the  upper  floors. 

Where  conditions  permit  it  would  be  desirable  in  drills 
to  use  the  regular  entrances  for  exit  purposes,  on  account 
of  their  familiarity  to  the  employees  constantly  using 
them.  In  their  selection,  however,  consideration  should 
be  given  to  possible  exposure  by  local  hazards,  such  as 
proximity  to  heating  and  power  plants  and  any  hazard- 
ous processes  connected  with  the  working  of  the  factory 
product.  It  is  also  important,  in  arranging  the  fire-drill 
exits,  to  allow  one  or  more,  if  possible,- as  entrance  for  the 


ii2  SAFETY 

firemen.  In  these  trials  every  available  exit,  including 
those  reached  by  way  of  the  roof,  should  be  considered. 

All  alarm  gongs  used  as  fire-drill  signals  should  be  dis- 
tinctive in  tone,  and  never  used  for  other  than  drill 
purposes. 

For  information  of  all  employees,  easily  read  notices 
should  be  posted  in  each  room  giving  full  instructions  in 
all  matters  pertaining  to  fire-drills.  These  notices  should 
be  printed  in  the  language  or  languages  of  the  operatives. 

The  engineer  in  every  factory,  upon  the  first  signal  of 
the  building  alarm,  should  be  instructed  to  shut  off  all 
power  from  machines  and  shafting  throughout  the  build- 
ing, except  in  cases  where  it  would  affect  the  operation 
of  the  fire  pumps,  elevators,  or  the  lighting  system. 

While  the  subject  of  fire-drills  and  fire-protective  meas- 
ures for  schools  may  seem  out  of  place  here,  considering 
the  subject  from  an  industrial  angle,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  large  proportion  of  the  children  in  every 
school  are  future  employees  in  industrial  establishments, 
where  a  knowledge  of  these  same  drills  and  precautionary 
measures  is  at  a  premium. 

Because  of  this,  fire  discipline  in  schools  should  follow 
as  nearly  as  is  practicable  the  same  general  principles 
that  experience  has  proven  most  helpful  in  the  industrial 
world. 

Fire-drill  for  public  schools  should  be  simple  and  di- 
rect. This  can  best  be  obtained  by  adapting  the  school 
organization,  through  its  teaching  staff,  to  the  require- 
ments. 

The  principal  should,  of  course,  be  supreme;  he  should 
fix  the  time  for  holding  drills  and  preserve  a  record 
thereof,  showing  the  time  required  in  each  case  to  effect 
the  dismissal  of  the  entire  school,  and  enforce  measures 


FIRE  113 

of  discipline  for  failure  of  any  teacher  or  pupil  to  fully 
observe  all  regulations.  He  should  designate  as  assist- 
ants one  teacher  on  each  floor,  who,  subject  to  his  au- 
thority, shall  have  general  direction  of  drill  exercises. 
Upon  these  assistants  must  devolve  the  important  duty 
of  changing  the  assignment  of  exits,  either  by  prearrange- 
ment  in  drill  practice  or  as  a  result  of  actual  fire  condi- 
tions. The  assistants  should  be  authorized  to  sound 
alarms  and  instructed  in  the  method  of  operating  alarm 
boxes. 

Each  class  will  be  under  the  immediate  direction  of  its 
teacher,  the  most  important  factor  for  the  success  of  the 
drill.  Efficiency  attained  in  school  drills  depends  largely 
on  the  discipline  maintained  by  the  teachers.  Therefore, 
any  departure  from  the  strict  letter  of  the  rules  should  be 
followed  by  proper  measures  of  discipline,  as  a  single  act 
of  untimely  disobedience  might  at  a  critical  time  threaten 
the  safety  of  the  entire  school.  Under  the  direction  of 
the  principal,  the  janitor  should  make  daily  inspection 
of  the  premises,  registering  his  rounds  on  a  watchman's 
clock. 

In  schools  where  electric  alarm  systems  are  installed 
daily  tests  should  be  made,  selecting  for  each  trial  a 
different  box  and  reporting  to  the  .principal. 
;  To  avoid  confusion  in  clearing  the  school,  the  precedence 
of  each  class  should  be  determined  in  advance,  and  care 
exercised  to  prevent  the  lines  of  two  or  more  classes 
crossing  in  reaching  the  exits.  In  order  to  obtain  proper 
supervision  of  the  line  while  descending  stairways,  one  or 
more  of  the  teachers  on  each  floor  should  remain  stationed 
until  all  of  the  classes  have  passed.  No  pupil  should  be 
permitted  to  leave  the  line  for  any  other  purpose  what- 
ever. 


ii4  *  SAFETY 

For  fire-escapes  the  same  general  arrangement  should 
be  followed,  excepting  that  the  teachers  should  remain 
on  the  balconies,  with  not  more  than  one  teacher  to  each 
balcony.  The  practice  of  occasionally  dismissing  the 
school  through  the  fire  exits  at  the  close  of  the  session  is 
also  recommended. 

In  schools  of  the  more  advanced  grades  it  will  be  found 
possible  to  organize  a  fire  brigade  from  among  the  pupils 
for  handling  chemical  extinguishers  and  hose  streams 
from  standpipes.  For  this  work  only  the  stronger  boys 
should  be  selected  from  each  class  and  regularly  drilled 
under  proper  direction.  But  in  no  case  should  this  work 
interfere  with  the  dismissal  of  the  school  under  the  fire- 
drill.  Where  pianos  or  other  instruments  are  available 
the  use  of  march-time  music  is  strongly  recommended. 

No  general  alarm  for  fire-drill  in  any  school-building 
should  be  sounded  on  a  gong  used  for  other  than  fire 
purpose.  An  auxiliary  fire-alarm  box  connected  with 
the  public  fire-alarm  system  should  be  installed  in  the 
school  near  the  main  entrance,  and  the  sounding  of  this 
alarm  should  be  the  duty  of  the  janitor. 

There  should  be  displayed  in  each  class-room  a  card 
of  instructions  containing  all  rules  and  requirements 
pertaining  to  the  fire-drill,  written  in  such  a  way  as 
to  be  thoroughly  understood  by  pupils  of  any  age 
reading  it. 

The  primary  object  of  the  fire-drill  for  the  department 
store  should  be  to  afford  training  for  its  employees  in  the 
handling  and  control  of  the  public  under  conditions  of 
panic.  This  must  be  accomplished  largely  by  individual 
instruction,  and  occasionally  by  execution  of  drill  man- 
ceuvers  after  the  close  of  business,  when  the  public  is 
absent.  It  is  recognized  as  a  serious  handicap  that  these 


FIRE  115 

drills  must  be  conducted  with  no  opportunity  for  testing 
the  working  efficiency  under  conditions  approximating 
actual  service,  and,  if  for  no  other  reason,  they  should  be 
given  the  closest  supervision  to  insure  the  trained  co- 
operation of  every  employee.  As  a  large  percentage  of 
employees  in  department  stores  generally  consists  of 
women  and  girls,  they  should  be  instructed  and  drilled 
in  taking  prompt  measures  for  their  own  safety.  In 
times  of  need  their  example  may  materially  assist  in 
handling  the  general  public. 

Department-store  fire-drill  organization  should  include 
a  chief  of  fire-drill,  assistant  chief  of  fire-drill,  floor  chiefs, 
captains,  guards,  and  inspectors,  in  addition  to  all  of  the 
male  employees  over  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  selection 
and  duties  of  the  chief  of  fire-drill,  his  assistant,  floor 
chiefs,  captains,  and  guards  are  governed  by  practically 
the  same  requirements  as  those  already  discussed  under 
factory  fire-drills. 

One  or  more  uniformed  inspectors,  preferably  with 
fire-department  experience,  should  be  employed  for 
day  fire-patrol  duty,  and  should  make  regular  rounds  of 
the  building,  registering  on  an  approved  watchman's 
clock.  The  rounds  should  cover  all  fire-escapes,  stair- 
way exits,  doors  and  windows,  where  the  latter  are  used 
as  exits  to  fire-escapes  or  stair  towers.  The  report 
of  inspectors  to  the  building  superintendent  should 
cover  these  points.  In  addition  to  the  duties  men- 
tioned the  inspector  should  also  make  a  daily  test  of 
the  alarm  system.  For  large  department  stores  of  more 
than  20,000  square  feet  ground  area  it  is  advisable  to 
have  an  inspector  for  each  floor. 

The  employees  in  each  department  or  fire  district  should 

be  organized  into  separate  companies  under  the  direction 
9 


n6  SAFETY 

of  the  department  manager  or  the  assistant  manager, 
having  the  title  of  captain.  For  fire-drill  purposes  each 
floor  should  be  divided  into  fire  districts,  with  as  many 
districts  as  there  are  departments,  excepting  that  the 
total  floor  area  of  each  district  should  not  exceed  7,500 
square  feet,  preferably  5,000  square  feet.  Special  pro- 
vision may  be  made  for  those  departments  where  the 
nature  of  the  stock  requires  large  floor  space,  and  where 
there  is  less  congestion  of  both  patrons  and  employees. 
This  would  apply  to  stocks  of  furniture,  carpets,  and 
pianos. 

Fire-drills  for  instruction  should  be  held  at  least  every 
two  weeks,  either  before  or  after  regular  business  hours. 
They  should  be  orderly,  without  confusion,  conducted 
with  marked  precision,  and  the  movements  should  be  as 
simple  and  few  in  number  as  possible. 

In  the  organization  of  each  company  there  should  be 
designated  not  less  than  four  of  its  members  to  lead  the 
lines,  in  descending  stairways  and  tower  exits  to  the  street 
floor. 

Upon  the  sounding  of  an  alarm  in  any  fire  district  the 
fire-drill  companies  in  the  two  nearest  districts  should 
assemble  and  stand  ready  to  render  any  assistance  re- 
quired. These  companies  may  be  used  to  advantage 
where  the  regular  exits  for  the  section  where  the  alarm  is 
sounded  are  exposed  or  cut  off  by  the  fire,  by  assisting  in 
the  formation  of  lines  and  leading  them  to  other  near-by 
exits. 

When  stores  are  divided  into  sections  cut  off  by  fire 
walls  with  standard  openings,  the  drill  exercises  should 
be  directed  to  their  use  in  preference  to  stairways  and 
fire-escapes. 

Women  and  girl  employees,  and  boys  who  are  not 


FIRE  117 

members  of  the  fire-drill  of  the  section  in  which  the  alarm 
is  sounded,  upon  the  first  signal  should  be  at  attention 
and  assemble  for  line  formation. 

When  conditions  permit,  the  line  should  be  led  off  to 
other  exits  than  those  to  which  the  public  may  be  crowd- 
ing. No  employee  should  attempt  to  secure  any  property 
from  locker  or  cloak-room. 

Elevator  attendants  should  remain  at  their  posts  of 
duty  and  continue  to  carry  passengers,  until  otherwise 
notified  by  the  floor  chief  or  captain. 

The  alarm  should  be  distinctive,  but  of  a  type  not 
likely  to  be  recognized  by  the  public;  for  this  reason  the 
ordinary  fire-gong  is  objectionable,  because  of  its  associa- 
tion in  the  public  mind.  The  use  of  bells  somewhat 
larger  and  of  a  softer  tone  than  telephone-bells  is  pre- 
ferred; in  some  cases  small  air- whistles  may  be  used. 

The  records  of  almost  every  theater  disaster  will  show 
that  the  critical  moment  in  determining  the  fate  of  the 
audience  has  been  at  the  instant  following  the  first  indica- 
tion of  alarm,  and  that  many,  if  not  a  large  majority,  of 
these  disasters  could  have  been  wholly  avoided  had  there 
been  some  prearranged  plan  for  concerted  action  on  the 
part  of  the  house  employees. 

Fire-drill  training  for  theater  attendants  should  there- 
fore be  directed  more  to  the  prevention  of  panics  than  to 
futile  attempts  at  regulating  the  movements  of  a  panic- 
stricken  audience.  The  wide  disparity  in  number  alone 
between  the  available  house  force  and  the  audience  makes 
any  attempt  at  such  regulation  ineffective. 

To  insure  the  best  results,  all  employees  permanently 
connected  with  the  theater  should  be  organized  into  fire- 
drill  companies,  with  special  duties  assigned  to  each. 


n8  SAFETY 

While  it  is  necessary  and  important  that  the  members  of 
these  companies  be  drilled  and  instructed  in  the  handling 
and  use  of  all  fire  equipment  and  properly  trained  in  the 
work  of  fire  extinguishment,  the  first  consideration  is  the 
safety  of  the  audience,  and  every  possible  effort  should 
be  made  in  rendering  assistance  to  the  ushers  in  effecting 
a  prompt  and  orderly  dismissal  of  the  audience.  This 
work  will  devolve  mainly  on  the  house  employees  in  the 
auditorium  and  business  offices,  including  the  door  at- 
tendants. Fire  records  show  that  almost  all  theater  fires 
originate  on  the  stage,  and  that  in  the  auditorium  they 
are  of  infrequent  occurrence. 

All  fire-signals  should  be  transmitted  by  an  electrically 
operated  alarm  system.  Recording  apparatus  should  be 
placed  in  the  main  business  office  or  in  the  box  office,  and 
also  in  the  office  of  the  stage-manager,  provided  there  is 
some  one  on  duty  in  these  offices  during  the  entire  per- 
formance. ^ 

Upon  receipt  of  an  alarm  by  the  stage-manager,  or 
when  fire  is  discovered  in  the  stage  section,  before  an 
alarm  is  struck  the  curtain  should  be  dropped  immediate- 
ly, or  some  one  of  the  actors  designated  by  the  stage- 
manager  should  come  before  the  curtain  and  announce  the 
discontinuance  of  the  performance.  Upon  the  wording  of 
the  announcement  and  the  manner  of  its  delivery  will 
depend  largely  the  conduct  of  the  audience,  and  it  is 
strongly  recommended  that  a  form  of  announcement  be 
prepared  and  printed  or  typewritten,  and  copies  thereof 
placed  at  the  punching  register,  and  also  in  the  hands  of 
the  various  stage  employees.  The  announcement  should 
be  brief  and  calculated  to  allay  any  feeling  that  the  unusual 
has  occurred.  Some  good  reason  other  than  the  real  one 
should  be  given  for  discontinuing  the  performance. 


FIRE  119 

While  the  announcement  is  being  made  each  usher  and 
doorman  in  the  parquet,  balcony,  and  galleries  will  move 
forward  in  the  aisles  and  give  direction  to  each  section 
as  to  the  exit  to  be  used.  The  orchestra  should  begin 
playing  suitable  march-time  music.  It  has  been  repeat- 
edly shown  that  the  orchestra  offers  one  of  the  most 
effective  means  known  for  controlling  theater  audiences 
in  times  of  threatened  panic. 

The  seating-plan  on  each  balcony,  as  well  as  on  the 
main  floor,  should  be  divided  into  sections,  and  to  each 
section  there  should  be  assigned  certain  exits,  according 
to  the  relative  discharging  capacities,  so  that  the  time 
required  for  discharging  the  number  apportioned  to  any 
one  exit  would  average  about  the  same  for  all.  Each  usher 
and  doorman  should  be  provided  with  a  copy  of  the  seat- 
ing-plan, on  which  should  be  indicated  the  exit  assignment 
in  detail.  Ushers  should  be  required  to  remain  on  duty 
in  their  respective  sections  throughout  each  performance. 

Pire-alarm  boxes  should  be  placed  where  they  can  be 
conveniently  reached;  but  not  in  general  view  of  the 
audience.  For  the  average  theater  there  should  be  a 
box  on  each  side  of  the  parquet  on  the  wall  in  the  rear 
of  the  last  row  of  seats,  and  one  box  in  the  main  lobby 
near  the  doorway.  For  balcony  and  galleries  there  should 
be  two  boxes,  one  at  each  side  and  behind  the  last  row 
of  seats.  For  the  stage  there  should  be  one  box  on  the 
rear  wall,  and  a  box  on  each  side  near  the  proscenium  wall, 
and,  where  necessary,  additional  boxes  in  dressing-rooms 
and  carpenter  shop.  The  boxes  in  the  auditorium  should 
operate  as  noiselessly  as  possible,  to  avoid  calling  atten- 
tion to  them.  An  auxiliary  box  connected  with  the  city 
alarm  circuit  should  be  installed  in  the  stage  section  and 
in  the  main  business  office. 


120  SAFETY 

The  practice  of  assigning  firemen  in  uniform  to  theaters 
during  performances  is  to  be  commended,  as  their  pres- 
ence may  serve  to  reassure  the  audience  in  case  of  alarm 
and  will  be  of  valuable  assistance  in  the  work  of  extin- 
guishing fire. 

In  addition  to  the  lights  over  the  exits  there  should  be 
a  number  of  signs,  preferably  of  the  illuminated  type, 
conspicuously  displayed  on  each  floor,  indicating  the  loca- 
tion of  all  exits. 

The  fire-drill  organization  should  consist  of  two  com- 
panies, each  under  the  direction  of  a  captain.  One  com- 
pany should  include  all  employees  in  the  auditorium  and 
offices  excepting  the  ushers  and  orchestra.  A  second 
company  should  include  all  employees  in  the  stage  sec- 
tion. The  captain  of  each  company  should  be  some  one 
in  authority :  for  the  company  first  mentioned  the  house- 
manager,  or  one  of  his  assistants ;  for  the  second  company 
the  stage-manager,  or  one  of  the  more  intelligent  stage 
mechanics. 

The  chief  stage  electrician  should  be  attached  to  the 
second  company,  and  be  subject  to  the  direction  of  the 
captain.  He  should  make  a  daily  test  of  the  alarm  system 
from  alternate  boxes  and  keep  a  record  thereof. 

Where  automatic  sprinkler  systems  are  installed,  all 
valves '  controlling  the  water-supply  should  be  strapped 
open  and  regularly  inspected  by  the  house  plumber,  who 
should  report  weekly  to  the  captain  on  their  condition. 

One  member  of  each  company  should  be  assigned  to 
make  daily  inspection  of  all  fire-escapes,  exits,  and  stair- 
ways, and  where  doors  are  not  provided  with  automatic 
opening  devices  to  see  that  they  are  unlocked  and  ready 
for  instant  use.  As  before  mentioned,  particular  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  fire-escapes  exposed  to  accumu- 


FIRE  121 

lations  of  snow  and  ice.  Prompt  report  should  be  made 
to  the  house-manager  of  any  condition  existing  in  viola- 
tion of  rules. 

Cards  of  instructions  containing  full  information  re- 
garding rules  and  duties  for  fire-drill  work  should  be 
posted  in  both  the  auditorium  and  stage  sections. 


VIII 

TRANSPORTATION 

A  DISCUSSION  of  the  problems  of  transportation, 
/\as  they  affect  the  safety  and  health  of  the  traveling 
public,  must  not  be  considered  in  the  light  of  instruction 
for  the  technician,  who,  of  course,  has  more  immediate 
and  detailed  sources  of  information  than  could  be  fur- 
nished in  the  space  at  hand.  However,  summarized  in- 
formation and  statistical  abstracts  are  always  valuable, 
both  for  the  instruction  of  new  men  and  for  the  inspira- 
tion of  those  holding  different  grades  in  the  service. 

No  one  knows  better  than  the  chief  of  the  operating 
department  of  a  street-railway  system  what  the  changes 
made  since  the  old  days  of  the  horse-drawn  car  have 
accomplished.  For  example,  take  the  case  of  the  type 
of  car  known  as  the  prepayment.  The  first  step  in  its 
evolution  was  a  lengthening  of  the  rear  platform.  Then 
came  the  side  doors,  with  the  attending  complication  of 
whether  they  should  slide  or  fold.  The  provision  of  fold- 
ing steps  dependent  on  the  operation  of  the  door  was  also 
a  serious  problem.  At  one  stage  it  became  necessary  to 
find  some  speedy  method  for  the  conductor  to  collect  his 
fares  without  lessening  the  attention  he  should  give  to 
the  passengers.  Fare  registers  of  a  variety  of  types  made 
their  appearance.  At  first  it  was  a  hunt  after  the  lost 
nickel,  but  gradually  stress  came  to  be  laid  on  prevention 
of  accidents.  Fifty  dollars  paid  for  damages  to  clothes 


TRANSPORTATION  123 

or  the  feelings  of  a  passenger  rolled  in  the  dust,  was  seen 
to  represent  a  thousand  nickels  lost  at  one  stroke. 

Push-buttons  to  indicate  the  passenger's  desire  to 
alight,  comfortable  seats,  well  ventilated  and  lighted  cars, 
exit  doors  pneumatically  controlled,  avoiding  in  great 
measure  the  risk  of  injury,  and  a  high  grade  of  skill  and 
intelligence  in  the  crew  are  conditions  which  the  street- 
railway  management  must  provide  to-day  if  it  is  to  make 
the  business  of  transporting  the  public  safe  and  com- 
fortable. 

The  modern,  thoroughly  equipped  prepayment  car  re- 
quires the  motorman  to  operate  controller,  air  and  hand 
brake,  alarm  gong,  and  sander,  and  sometimes  air-operated 
fenders  or  scrapers.  The  really  important  new  duty  of 
the  motorman  is  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  exit  door 
and  step,  a  hand  or  foot  operation  occurring  many  times 
daily.  The  next  important  step  will  undoubtedly  be  the 
provision  of  some  kind  of  an  interlocking  device  that  will 
make  one  initial  movement  automatically  set  in  motion 
the  sequence  of  stopping  or  starting  operations.  With 
improvements  in  cash  -  registering  boxes  and  other  re- 
cording devices  the  conductor  need  only  be  concerned 
with  issuing  transfers,  making  change,  and  calling  out 
the  streets. 

All  this  means  that  the  use  of  the  latest  type  of  pre- 
payment car  demands  a  high  grade  of  physique  and 
mentality  in  its  motorman;  but  in  the  case  of  the  con- 
ductor, strength  and  intelligence  are  secondary.  In 
preventing  accidents  to  the  traveling  public  trained  in- 
telligence is  a  prerequisite. 

It  has  been  found  that  side  doors  with  folding  steps 
materially  lessen  the  boarding  and  alighting  accidents. 
Another  advantage  is  that  they  anticipate  municipal  re- 


124  SAFETY 

quirements  for  adequate  protection  from  the  weather. 
The  Capital  Traction  Company,  Washington,  District  of 
Columbia,  uses  a  pay-within  type  of  car  for  the  sake  of 
reducing  accidents  to  a  minimum.  Damage  costs  ex- 
pressed in  figures  are:,  i  for  the  pay- within,  4.03  for  the 
pay-as-you-enter,  and  14.8  for  the  non-prepayment.  The 
same  company  has  drawn  up  a  table  of  settled  claims  for 
boarding  and  alighting  accidents. 


COST  PER 
I  ,OOO 
MILES 


Non-prepayment  3,663,143  1.97 

Pay-as-you-enter  1,893,440  .53 

Pay-within  2,405,792  . 13 

In  November,  1911,  there  were  10  serious  injuries  as 
compared  with  20  for  the  same  month  in  1910.  For 
November,  1911,  there  were  14  accidents  on  pay- within 
cars,  as  follows :  boarding  standing  cars,  3 ;  leaving  stand- 
ing cars,  6;  slipped  in  street  upon  leaving  standing  cars, 
4;  car  starting  without  signal,  i.  It  will  be  noted  that 
but  one  of  these  accidents  was  due  to  the  negligence  of 
the  company  or  its  employees. 

The  business  of  the  trolley  company  is  selling  trans- 
portation, which  in  most  cases  is  done  on  the  platform 
of  the  car.  Except  in  the  purchase  of  tickets,  the  business 
transacted  is  retail,  and  the  car  platform  the  salesroom. 
Every  improvement  on  the  conductor  end  of  the  car 
relieves  him  of  the  operating  responsibility,  and,  by  put- 
ting it  all  on  the  motorman,  enables  him  to  make  safer 
and  prompter  starts  and  stops;  in  other  words,  a  greater 
degree  of  safety  for  the  traveling  public.  How  can  the 
company  improve  the  human  factor  of  its  service?  One 
excellent  method  is  the  practice  of  written  examinations 
in  accident  prevention  compelling  thought;  just  as  soon  as 


AT   THE   LUNCH-COUNTER 


CLUBHOUSE   FOR   EMPLOYEES  DRYER   FOR   MEN*S    WET   CLOTHING 


IN   THE   RECREATION-ROOM 
MUTUALITY    AT    THE    BROOKLYN    RAPID    TRANSIT    COMPANY 


TRANSPORTATION  125 

an  employee  gets  the  think  habit,  that  moment  the  man- 
agement has  a  real  asset  and  the  man  is  on  the  road  to 
promotion.  It  is  not  a  memory,  but  an  intelligence  test. 
This  kind  of  a  safety  device  is  in  operation  on  the  Buffalo, 
Lockport  &  Rochester  Railway  system  and  is  yielding 
results.  The  plan  could  be  improved  by  the  offer  of  a 
monthly  cash  prize  for  the  best  answers. 

The  motorman  and  conductor  are  in  a  class  all  by  them- 
selves. Unlike  any  other  position  in  the  world,  paying 
an  equal  remuneration,  but  little  preparation  either 
mentally  or  financially  is  necessary  to  become  proficient 
in  handling  a  street-car  properly.  The  greenest  young 
man  who  never  saw  an  electric  car  can  walk  into  an 
employment  office  on  Monday,  and  on  the  following 
Sunday  be  earning  twenty-three  to  twenty-eight  cents 
an  hour,  when  to  reach  such  a  remuneration  in  any  other 
employment  it  is  necessary  to  go  through  years  of  tech- 
nical training  in  schools,  or  start  at  the  very  bottom, 
spending  years  learning  the  work. 

The  attitude  of  the  public  is  not  always  the  most  help- 
ful in  maintaining  a  high  tone  in  this  service;  and  again, 
the  environment  of  car-barns  and  waiting-rooms  does  not 
tend  to  impress  upon  car-men  the  importance  of  their 
work.  But  at  this  very  point,  those  in  charge  of  the 
crews  must  possess  the  ability  to  impress  them  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  make  them  realize  the  importance,  even 
the  dignity,  of  their  work. 

These  unfavorable  conditions  can  be  eliminated  by  the 
provision  of  social  centers  for  the  men,  where  they  may 
find  wholesome  relaxation  for  those  feeling  thus  inclined, 
and  for  the  more  serious,  opportunities  for  reading  and 
even  study.  It  would  pay  a  company  many  times  over 
to  provide  a  labor  secretary,  whose  entire  time  should  be 


126  SAFETY 

at  the  service  of  the  men  to  advise  them  on  any  point 
which  they  should  bring,  not  only  about  their  work,  but 
on  any  phase  of  their  life.  Such  a  secretary  must  pos- 
sess tact,  discretion,  and  sympathy;  he  must  be  a  good 
" mixer,"  in  the  phraseology  of  the  politicians.  In  a  very 
short  time  the  good  effect  of  this  personal  contact  with 
the  crews  would  yield  results;  the  men  would  then  operate 
as  if  their  own  success  or  failure  depended  on  the  result. 
The  men  would  come  to  inquire  how  they  could  win  pro- 
motion, what  qualities  their  superintendent  was  looking 
for,  and  would  take  a  personal  interest  in  what  otherwise 
would  be  routine  and  mechanical. 

The  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  Railroad  Co. 
safeguards  the  lives  and  promotes  the  health  of  its 
employees  and  the  traveling  public  by  general  regulations 
and  special  instructions  defining  .and  prescribing  the  re- 
spective duties  of  employees  in  language  so  clear  and 
plain  as  to  leave  no  room  for  misunderstanding,  but  re- 
quiring, at  the  same  time,  that  in  every  case  of  doubt  of 
correct  interpretation  an  employee  must  apply  at  once 
to  competent  authority  for  explanation. 

Employees  in  every  branch  of  the  transportation  ser- 
vice are  carefully  examined  on  their  knowledge  of  the 
rules  affecting  their  duties,  their  own  safety,  and  that  of 
the  traveling  public.  They  are  likewise  examined  under 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  company's  medical  depart- 
ment on  their  acuteness  of  vision,  hearing,  clear  percep- 
tion, and  general  physical  condition  before  being  assigned 
to  duties  where  perfection  in  these  respects  is  requisite. 

Employees  are  forbidden  to  employ  their  time  while 
off  duty  in  a  manner  that  may  unfit  them  for  the  safe, 
prompt,  and  efficient  performance  of  their  respective 
duties.  They  are  strictly  enjoined  and  required  to  use 


TRANSPORTATION  127 

their  time  while  off  duty  primarily  for  obtaining  ample 
rest.  The  use  of  intoxicants  by  employees  in  transporta- 
tion service,  while  either  on  or  off  duty,  or  the  visiting  of 
saloons  or  places  where  liquor  is  sold,  incapacitates  them 
for  such  service,  and  the  habit  is  therefore  absolutely 
prohibited. 

The  service  demands  faithful  and  intelligent  discharge 
of  duty,  and  to  this  end  promotions  are  based  on  fitness 
and  capacity  for  greater  responsibility. 

This  company  has  in  operation,  with  excellent  results, 
a  Safety  Department  composed  of  general  and  divisional 
officers  from  the  Transportation,  Motive  Power  and  Equip- 
ment, Engineering,  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Depart- 
ments, with  a  fair  representation  of  employees  of  each 
branch  of  the  service  maintained  by  those  departments 
for  co-operative  work  in  removing  menacing  obstacles 
or  conditions,  and  for  recommendations  for  improvements 
in  facilities  and  practice. 

Health  is  promoted  by  providing  commodious  living 
accommodations  at  the  terminals  for  employees  away  from 
their  homes,  in  buildings  owned  by  the  company,  equipped 
with  modern  improvements  and  managed  co-operatively 
with  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  where,  in 
addition  to  comfortable  sleeping-rooms,  ample  meals  and 
bath  facilities,  spacious  reading-rooms  with  libraries,  mag- 
azines, and  other  current  literature,  billiard-rooms,  bowling 
alleys,  and  facilities  for  other  entertainment  are  provided. 

The  systematic  prevention  of  accidents  on  the  lines 
and  in  the  shops  of  transportation  systems  through  the 
organization  of  safety  committees  will  be  treated  in  the 
chapter  on  "Safety  Committees." 


IX 

SAFETY   COMMITTEES 

NO  one  is  so  well  informed  of  the  dangers  of  any  par- 
ticular trade  or  process  as  the  foremen  and  superin- 
tendents under  whose  care  are  the  men  and  women  to 
whom  the  accidents  might  befall.  But  the  heads  of  de- 
partments often  are  indifferent,  and  more  often  do  not 
like  to  suggest  the  expense  of  such  safety  devices  as  may 
be  necessary  to  better  existing  conditions.  It  is  indis- 
putable that  no  one  can  point  out  better  than  these  men 
who  are  in  daily  contact  with  them  where  the  danger 
zones  of  machines  and  processes  lie. 

How  is  it  to  be  brought  about  that  the  owners,  the 
managers  with  their  foremen,  and  the  workmen  them- 
selves shall  co-operate  intelligently  toward  the  end  of 
safety  in  the  works?  The  successful  answer  is,  "The 
Committee  of  Safety." 

The  organization  and  development  of  committees  of 
safety  among  workmen  and  operatives  in  railroads, 
factories,  mills,  and  shops  is  a  most  important  factor  of 
modern  safeguarded  industry. 

As  an  instance  of  a  national  safety  committee  the 
German  Empire  may  be  cited,  where  there  are  some 
700,000  individual  or  corporate  industrialists,  associated 
in  66  trade  associations,  representing  every  phase  of  in- 
dustry. Through  the  investigations  and  reports  of  their 
technical  experts  they  now  possess  the  accumulated  ex- 


SAFEGUARDED    MULTIPLE    DRILL-PRESS 

A — Drill  chuck  substituted  for  set-screws.        D — Shield  over  belt  drive. 
B — Gear-shields.  E — Safety  chain  on  counterweight. 

C — Shield  over  feed  mechanism.  F — Fiber  disk  on  controller  handle. 

G — Warning-sign. 


SAFEGUARDED    GEARS    ON   JIB    CRANE  GEAR    COVERS    ON   JIB    CRANE    REMOVED 

CARNEGIE    STEEL    COMPANY 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  129 

perience  of  twenty-six  years  in  preventing  accidents  and 
promoting  health.  This  forms  a  national  committee  of 
safety,  a  powerful  engine  for  reducing  the  preventable 
accidents  in  the  German  Empire  by  at  least  one-half.  ••' 

As  a  distinct  branch  of  its  work  the  American  Museum 
of  Safety  is  prepared  to  promote  the  committee-of -safety 
idea  in  railroads,  factories,  mills,  and  other  plants,  with 
practical  suggestions  for  their  effective  organization. 

Furthermore,  it  will  stand  back  of  the  committee  of 
safety  once  organized,  by  means  of  a  special  report  ser- 
vice on  such  devices  already  in  use  as  have  proven  effective 
in  the  best  shop  practice.  This  will  include  a  photo- 
graphic service  for  the  use  of  draftsmen  and  works' 
managers. 

To  stimulate  safety  and  caution  in  the  works,  and  to  co- 
operate with  the  committees  of  safety,  the  Museum  of 
Safety  offers  lecture  studies  and  talks,  illustrated  with 
lantern  slides,  of  the  actual  safeguards  for  machines  and 
processes.  The  value  of  this  practical  demonstration 
has  already  been  proven.  "The  Museum's  safety  lecture 
gave  me  the  very  opportunity  which  I  had  been  vainly 
seeking,  to  bring  together  my  men  for  a  conference  on 
this  important  subject,"  said  a  vice-president  and  general 
manager  of  a  large  plant,  on  the  occasion  of  this  presenta- 
tion to  a  body  of  nearly  one  hundred  men,  none  of  whom 
was  under  the  grade  of  foreman.  "It  is  impossible  for 
me  to  tell  you,"  he  added,  several  weeks  later,  "how  this 
conference  will  raise  the  whole  tone  of  the  works  and 
their  attitude  toward  the  use  of  safety  devices  for  the 
protection  of  the  men  under  them." 

While  all  the  subsidiary  companies  of  the  United  States 
Steel  Corporation  were  putting  forth  individual  efforts 


130  SAFETY 

to  prevent  accidents,  the  safety  work  was  not  taken  up 
systematically  until  1906.  In  May  of  that  year  the 
corporation  called  a  meeting  of  the  casualty  managers 
of  all  the  subsidiary  companies  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing ways  and  means  for  preventing  accidents  to  em- 
ployees. From  this  meeting  and  later  meetings  there 
was  developed  the  "Committee  of  Safety  of  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation." 

This  committee  was  first  made  up  of  six  members,  an 
officer  of  the  Steel  Corporation  acting  as  chairman,  and 
the  five  other  members  representing  five  of  the  larger 
subsidiary  companies.  Later,  two  additional  members 
were  added,  making  a  total  of  seven  representatives  of  the 
larger  subsidiary  companies.  .* 

The  primary  duty  of  this  committee  was  to  perfect  a 
plan  of  inspection  for  the  different  plants  and  works  of  the 
subsidiary  companies,  with  reference  to  the  best  methods 
of  preventing  accidents.  In  addition,  the  committee  was 
to  act  as  a  clearing-house  in  obtaining  and  disseminating 
information  and  suggestions  tending  toward  the  safe- 
guarding of  employees.  The  committee  was  given  power 
to  select  inspectors  to  go  over  conditions  at  the  different 
plants  and  works,  to  make  written  reports  upon  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  preventing  accidents,  and  to  suggest 
further  means  for  the  better  protection  of  workmen. 

The  committee  put  into  operation  immediately  a  sys- 
tem of  inspection,  selecting  men  familiar  with  the  ma- 
chinery and  operations  of  the  different  subsidiary  com- 
panies, and  sending  them  to  inspect  the  mills  and  plants. 
These  inspectors  are  also  men  of  experience  in  matters 
connected  with  accidents,  competent  to  detect  sources 
of  danger,  and  able  to  devise  means  of  preventing  them. 
They  report  directly  to  the  Safety  Committee.  Their 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  131 

reports  are  exhaustive,  taking  up  each  building  in  the 
plant  and  covering  it  in  detail.  They  call  attention  to 
the  smallest  sources  of  danger  —  worn  floors,  material 
piled  carelessly,  and  windows  that  should  be  cleaned  to 
give  better  light;  their  comments  cover  loose  planks  that 
workmen  have  left  where  they  might  cause  falls ;  railings, 
ladders,  foot  walks,  and  set-screws  are  given  the  most 
careful  scrutiny.  Unsafe  practices  by  the  employees  are 
investigated  carefully,  and  suitable  recommendations  are 
made  against  them.  The  reports  and  recommendations 


MANHOLE    CARELESSLY    LEFT    UNGUARDED 

of  the  inspectors  are  gone  over  with  care  by  the  Safety 
Committee,  and  are  then  sent  to  the  proper  representa- 
tives operating  the  plant  in  question.  The  committee 
requests  the  company  to  submit,  within  thirty  days,  a 
return  showing  what  action  has  been  taken  to  carry  out 
the  recommendations  of  the  inspector;  or,  if  objections 

are  made  to  any  recommendations,  the  committee,  or 
10 


132  SAFETY 

one  or  more  members  delegated  for  that  purpose,  makes 
a  personal  inspection  of  the  plant  with  regard  to  any 
points  in  dispute. 

At  each  meeting  all  the  serious  accidents  that  have  hap- 
pened are  carefully  considered,  an4  recommendations 
made  as  to  the  means  of  avoiding  similar  occurrences, 
not  only  with  regard  to  the  company  where  the  accident 
happened,  but  to  all  subsidiary  companies. 

The  subsidiary  companies  themselves  now  have  safety 
committees  whose  functions  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Steel  Corporation  committee,  but  are  confined  to  the 
operations  of  their  own  companies.  In  addition,  there 
are  plant  committees,  made  up  of  foremen  and  the  work- 
men themselves,  who  make  regular  inspections  and  sug- 
gestions as  to  how  to  prevent  accidents.  These  organiza- 
tions differ  somewhat  in  the  several  companies,  but  the 
plan  usually  followed  is  to  have  what  are  called  ' '  Central 
Committees,"  "Plant  Committees, "  and  "Workmen 
Committees." 

The  Central  Committee  is  made  up  of  the  important 
officials  from  each  of  the  plants  or  mining  divisions,  who 
meet  monthly  at  the  head  office  of  the  company.  As 
mentioned  before,  they  discuss  all  serious  accidents  and 
recommend  ways  and  means  for  preventing  similar  acci- 
dents, not  only  to  the  particular  plant  where  the  accident 
happened,  but  to  all  plants.  This  information  is  then 
sent  to  the  Bureau  of  Safety  in  New  York,  and  is  again 
distributed  to  all  the  subsidiary  companies  of  the  Steel 
Corporation,  with  a  view  to  avoiding  a  repetition  of  ac- 
cidents. Safety  devices  and  safety  regulations  are 
handled  in  the  same  manner.  Consideration  of  the  ques- 
tions that  come  before  this  committee  does  not  depend 
solely  upon  the  judgment  of  its  members;  but  it  is  the 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  133 

practice  to  obtain  the  advice  and  judgment  of  men  at  the 
works  who  are  specialists  upon  the  particular  branch  of 
the  work  involved  in  the  question  under  consideration. 
The  recommendations  of  this  committee  are  accepted  and 
put  into  force  at  all  plants  without  question,  unless  some 
special  circumstances  make  it  impossible  to  do  so. 

" Plant  Committees"  are  made  up  of  superintendents, 
assistant  superintendents,  master  mechanics,  and  safety 
inspectors.  They  hold  weekly  meetings  at  some  plants, 
and  at  others  daily.  They  discuss  operating  questions, 
safety  matters,  proposed  safety  devices,  and  accidents 
which  have  occurred  since  their  last  meeting.  Each  de- 
partment of  the  plant  has  a  committee  of  foremen.  It  is 
the  duty  of  this  committee  to  make  regular  inspections, 
monthly  or  weekly,  as  the  plan  may  be,  to  see  that  all 
safety  devices  are  installed  and  all  safety  regulations 
enforced.  Other  duties  of  this  committee  are  to  investi- 
gate all  serious  accidents.  In  making  this  investigation 
they  go  to  the  scene  of  the  accident,  examine  witnesses 
when  necessary,  and  make  a  report  as  to  what  they  think 
can  be  done  to  prevent  a  similar  accident ;  also  whether, 
in  their  opinion,  any  one  was  negligent,  and  what  they 
think  should  be  done  with  the  negligent  person.  Care- 
less men  are  laid  off  or  discharged  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  these  committees. 

The  Workmen's  Committee  usually  consists  of  three 
members,  and  is  made  up  from  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
mill  or  plant.  The  members  of  the  committee  are  al- 
lowed sufficient  time  once  or  twice  a  month,  or  as  often 
as  once  a  week  in  some  plants,  to  make  an  inspection 
requiring  from  a  few  hours  to  a  whole  day,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  plant.  Workmen  are  paid  their  regular 
rate  of  wages  while  making  inspections, 


134  SAFETY 

The  duty  of  this  committee  is  to  look  for  defects  in 
buildings  or  equipment,  unsafe  practices  at  work,  and  any 
other  conditions  in  the  plant  which  might  be  the  cause 
of  accidents.  After  each  inspection  they  report  in  writ- 
ing to  the  plant  committee  such  matters  as  need  atten- 
tion, with  such  recommendations  as,  in  their  opinion, 
will  prevent  accidents. 

The  make-up  of  these  committees  is  changed  frequent- 
ly, with  the  result  that  in  time  every  man  in  the  mill 
will  have  been  a  member  of  one  of  these  committees. 
The  men  are  made  to  understand  that  after  they  have 
served  their  time  upon  the  committee  they  should  not 
drop  the  work,  but  continue  to  make  suggestions.  A  good 
many  suggestions  come  from  ex-members  of  these  com- 
mittees. 

One  inevitable  result  of  the  work  of  a  safety  committee 
where  there  are  many  subsidiary  companies,  is  the  stand- 
ardization of  safeguards  in  the  interests  of  practicability 
and  economy.  This  is  exactly  what  happened  in  the 
case  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  which  has 
just  issued  a  book  of  standard  requirements  for  safety, 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Committee  of  Safety, 
embodying  the  experience  of  the  subsidiary  companies  and 
the  committee  in  preventing  injuries  to  employees.  It 
is  to  be  used  as  a  guide  in  standardizing  the  safety  ap- 
pliances and  precautions  necessary  to  protect  employees 
from  the  dangers  incident  to  machinery  and  working 
conditions,  and  aims  to  insure  the  provision  of  efficient 
safeguards  and  proper  working  conditions  at  the  time 
construction  work  is  planned  and  machinery  installed. 

It  is  also  the  plan  that  present  operations  and  equip- 
ment should  conform  with  these  suggestions  so  far  as 
practicable  when  replacement  and  repairs  are  made. 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  135 

Further  suggestions  for  additions  and  improvements 
in  safety  devices  and  working  conditions  are  always  in- 
vited. 

Through  its  Committee  of  Safety  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  reduced  its  serious  shop  accidents  63  per  cent. 
At  first  the  idea  of  a  safety  committee  met  with  con- 
siderable discussion  as  to  what  should  be  the  character 
of  its  membership,  as  it  was  feared  that,  if  workmen 
were  allowed  to  make  recommendations  and  some  of 
these  were  not  carried  out,  the  men  might  develop  a 
" grievance";  hence  this  question  as  to  the  make-up  of 
the  committees  was  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  various 
operating  officials,  with  the  result  that  there  is  wide 
diversity  in  the  nature  of  the  occupation  of  the  members. 
As  a  rule,  the  chairman  is  never  lower  than  foreman. 
While  the  terms  of  service  vary,  there  is  practically  una- 
nimity as  to  rotation  of  membership  each  three  months, 
thereby  insuring  that  a  majority  of  the  members  will  be- 
come experienced  and  familiar  with  the  work  in  hand. 
These  committees  report  quarterly,  and  the  members  are 
paid  full  time  and  expenses. 

The  duties  of  the  Safety  Committee  are  as  follows: 

First:  To  make  periodical  inspections  of  all  departments,  each  to  be 
investigated  at  least  once  in  every  three  months. 

Second:  To  report  to  the  master  mechanic  the  results  of  the  in- 
vestigation, giving  the  committee's  recommendations  for  any  addi- 
tional protection  deemed  advisable,  such  recommendations  to  include 
the  cost,  if  any,  of  carrying  out  the  same. 

Third:  To  make  thorough  investigation  of  all  accidents  and  furnish 
a  report,  giving  their  conclusions  as  to  responsibility  for  the  accident, 
and  recommendations  both  as  to  discipline  to  be  applied  and  action 
taken  to  prevent  a  recurrence. 

Fourth:  To  report  quarterly,  giving  general  summary  of  work  done 
by  committee  for  said  quarter,  such  report  to  be  in  shape  for  trans- 


136  SAFETY 

mission  to  superintendent  of  motive  power  for  the  information  of  the 
general  superintendent  and  general  manager. 

This  committee  work  has  also  been  greatly  extended 
to  cover  the  road  and  yards,  and  the  reports  of  these 
committees  show  excellent  results. 

A  study  of  the  reports  of  the  various  committees  shows 
that  they  differ  considerably  in  the  character  of  recom- 
mendations made,  and  in  their  individuality;  while  some 
refer  chiefly  to  safety  features  in  connection  with  train 
movement,  others  consider  features  of  a  mechanical 
nature,  of  construction  and  electrical  hazards.  This  has 
suggested  the  wisdom  of  exchanging  committees  on  vari- 
ous divisions. 

One  safety  committee,  consisting  of  assistant  train- 
master, as  chairman,  master  carpenter,  engine-house  fore- 
man, and  assistant  road  foreman  of  engines,  gave  special 
attention  to  the  practice  of  trespassing  on  trains  and 
right  of  way.  "Citizens  on  both  sides  of  the  yard  seem 
to  be  almost  constantly  using  the  tracks  in  the  yard 
instead  of  the  public  roads  in  going  to  and  from  their 
homes."  "Chairman  of  committee  saw  the  school  mis- 
tress at  the  'Y'  school-house  in  company  with  ten  or 
twelve  of  her  small  pupils  using  the  track."  "Police 
officer  notified  with  regard  to  this,  and  instructed  to  take 
matter  up  with  school  mistress  immediately,  with  a  view 
to  having  her  discontinue  practice  at  once."  The  result 
is  that  this  practice  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
This  committee  is  also  endeavoring  to  educate  trainmen 
in  regard  to  strict  observance  of  all  rules,  orders,  and  in- 
structions for  personal  safety  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duties,  and  the  protection  of  property. 

From  another  division  comes  the  safety  report  that 
there  should  be  wood  platforms  at  all  telephone  boxes  as 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  137 

extra  protection  against  lightning  and  ground-rod,  instead 
of  grounding  wire  to  iron  post,  set  in  cement  which  sup- 
ports the  box;  better  clearances  between  tracks  and  walls, 
scale,  freight  and  other  buildings,  platforms,  telegraph- 
poles,  and  trees  with  projecting  limbs,  boarding  up  lum- 
ber-cars having  missing  doors,  through  which  pieces  of 
lumber  work  out  to  the  danger  of  employees  and  the 
equipment. 

The  safety  committee  of  another  division,  which  made 
one  trip  as  a  body  over  the  whole  division,  reported, 
among  other  things  which  in  their  judgment  menaced 
the  safety  of  employees,  such  items  as: 

Switches  found  with  spikes  in  jaws  of  the  rod  to  take  up  lost  motion, 
caused  by  wearing  off. 

First-Aid  Boxes — sometimes  carelessly  kept  and  found  only  after 
difficulty.  Should  be  kept  handy  for  use  at  moment's  notice. 

Lecture  given  Fireman  P for  lying  lengthwise  on  the  footstep 

of  side  of  polling-car. 

Foreman  car  inspector  has  no  medical  box  or  stretcher. 

Storage-Battery  Department.  Men  frequently  injured  about  face 
when  prying  open  lids  of  batteries.  Glasses  recommended. 

In  only  one  tower,  medical  box  found. 

Found  a  section  gang  eating  their  dinner  under  the  edge  of  a  flat- 
car,  across  the  rails. 

Signalman  reading  books  or  newspapers  while  on  duty. 

An  assistant  train  director  made  124  recommendations 
for  improvements,  out  of  which  114  were  definitely  put 
in  practice  and  10  suggestions  were  referred  to  higher  au- 
thorities. Only  one  suggestion  was  considered  "not  nec- 
essary." 

The  Safety  Committee  of  the  Altoona  shops,  in  a  later 
report,  especially  recommended  that  some  uniform  sys- 
tem be  adopted  for  the  cleaning  of  machinery,  in  some 
shops  the  rule  being  to  shut  off  power  at  11.30  on  Sat- 
urdays ;  in  others  twenty  minutes  being  allowed ;  in  still 


i38  SAFETY 

others,  but  fifteen  minutes.  In  some  cases  where  there 
is  a  rush  job  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  machinery 
again.  Definite  rules  were  advocated,  posted  in  all  plants, 
stating  the  time  allowed  for  cleaning.  Machinery  should 
never  be  cleaned  while  in  motion.  In  selecting  oilers  it 
was  pointed  out  that  adults  should  be  preferred,  as  a  young 
person  is  not  so  likely  to  realize  danger  and  to  exercise 
proper  caution.  In  this  plant  fully  90  per  cent,  of  work- 
men operating  machines  are  piece-workers,  who  claim  time 
should  be  allowed  for  cleaning^  If  the  time  allowed  is 
not  sufficient,  they  take  chances  by  cleaning  while  the 
machinery  is  in  motion. 

Complete  covering  of  dangerous  parts,  so  as  to  render 
them  "fool-proof,"  was  advocated,  also  that  competent 
draftsmen  study  the  situation  and  design  effective  guards, 
as  many  of  those  in  use  were  only  makeshifts. 

In  addition  to  recommending  guards  for  all  gears,  belt 
and  pulley  drives,  fly-wheels,  and  shafting,  attention  was 
called  to  exposed  set-screws,  need  of  hand-rails  around 
trap-doors  and  other  points  of  danger,,  the  repairing  of 
worn  valves  and  parts  of  machines,  more  substantial 
car  blocks,  sidings  too  close  to  sheds,  badly  placed  doors, 
escaping  sewer-gas,  rough  board  floor  on  bed-casting  to 
prevent  workmen  from  slipping,  warning  -  signs,  .shields 
to  protect  workmen  from  flying  sparks  and  metal  chips. 

Illustrating  the  value  of  repeated  inspections,  and  a 
verbatim  report  of  a  divisional  committee : 

August  21,  1911. 
SUPT.  MOTIVE  POWER: 

DEAR  SIR,— Your  committee  on  Safety  Appliances,  in  compliance 
with  your  request,  have  made  an  inspection  of  all  the  plants  in  our 
jurisdiction  to  note  the  progress  made  on  former  recommendations, 
and  also  to  gather  additional  data  to  safeguard  these  plants.  In  sub- 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  139 

mitting  this  report  we  beg  leave  to  say  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  con- 
siderable progress  has  been  made.  The  former  reports  which  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  authorities  in  the  different  plants  cover  in  detail  all 
the  recommendations  made,  and  are  receiving  attention,  as  will.be  noted 
in  this  report.  It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  in  former  detailed 
report  there  was  attached  to  same  a  number  of  general  recommenda- 
tions which  were  applicable  to  almost  all  the  plants,  and  also  the 
supplementary  reports  contained  a  valuable  collection  of  informa- 
tion, which,  if  acted  upon,  would  materially  safeguard  all  the  plants. 
There  seems  to  be  some  laxness  in  following  out  these  recommendations 
and  suggestions,  which  your  committee  considers  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, and  we  therefore  suggest  that  a  copy  of  these 'reports  be 
furnished  to  each  foreman,  to  be  carefully  noted,  retained,  and  carried 
out  as  applicable  and  practical  to  his  department. 

In  making  this  inspection  your  committee  was  approached  by 
workmen  in  the  different  plants  with  complaints  and  suggestions,  some 
of  which  were  considered  trivial,  and  others  not  proper  questions  for 
us  to  determine,  as  they  could  have  been  made  to  the  foreman  in 
charge  for  consideration. 

Attached  please  find  report  of  conditions  as  we  found  them  in  the 
different  plants,  together  with  complaints  and  recommendations 
offered.  Respectfully, 

(Signed)  MACHINE  CARPENTER, 
MACHINIST, 
MACHINIST, 
ELECTRICIAN, 
WIREMAN, 

Safety  Committee. 

As  stated,  the  Safety  Committee  reports  to  the  super- 
intendent of  the  shops.  The  opinion  of  one  of  these  offi- 
cials is  given  in  the  following  report : 

I  regard  the  work  of  the  committee  as  being  beneficial  in  several 
ways ;  first,  in  exciting  the  interest  of  employees  in  a  direction  outside 
their  ordinary  duties;  second,  in  calling  attention  to  defects  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  overlooked  by  the  maintenance  men. 

All  the  recommendations  of  the  committee  have  been  put  into 
effect,  the  work  having  been  done  gradually  and  expense  disposed 
of  to  the  proper  accounts. 

In  my  instruction  to  the  Safety  Committee  I  told  them  they  should 
not  limit  their  investigations  to  any  definite  line,  but  anything  they 
saw  that,  in  their  opinion,  should  be  called  to  the  attention  of  the 
operating  officers  should  be  included  in  their  report. 


i4o  SAFETY 

January  i,  1913,  there  were  thirty  safety  committees, 
with  a  membership  of  five  each. 

Since  January  i,  1912,  careful  records  have  been  made 
of  the  reports  of  accidents  in  shops,  and  the  serious  acci- 
dents show  the  marked  decrease  from  about  300  per  month 
to  slightly  over  100.  While  this  experience  is  gratifying, 
greater  results  can  be  accomplished.  The  safeguarding 
of  machinery  and  improvement  of  shop  practices  may  be 
considered  comparatively  easy.  In  the  shops,  after 
everything  has  been  done  to  safeguard  machinery,  there 
are  questions  of  sanitation,  lighting,  and  improvement 
in  work  surroundings  which  are  bound  to  result  in 
better  health  and  greater  efficiency.  On  the  road  there 
are  great  possibilities  in  safeguarding  employees  through 
the  elimination  of  what  have  heretofore  been  considered 
ordinary  risks — such  as  covering  culverts,  increasing 
clearance,  and  the  removal  of  obstructions  along  the  track 
or  right  of  way,  as  well  as  the  issuing  of  bulletins  giving 
the  causes  of  accidents,  which  will  help  to  develop  the 
safety  trend  of  mind. 

On  asking  James  McCrea,  former  president  of  the  road, 
for  his  philosophy  of  the  work  of  accident  prevention  for 
the  personnel  of  the  road  and  the  safety  of  the  traveling 
public,  he  remarked : 

"The  problem  of  safety  is  not  altogether  a  question  of 
rules  and  their  enforcement,  safety  appliances  and  their 
application,  but  inherent  self-restraint  and  control.  If 
'We  can  provide  instruction  in  these  principles,  we  will 
have  taken  a  long  step  forward  in  conserving  life  and 
limb  and  increasing  industrial  safety.  We  feel  that,  while 
much  has  been  accomplished,  there  remains  still  more 
to  be  done,  and  the  success  which  has  been  reached  and 
which  we  hope  to  achieve  is  and  will  be  due  entirely  to 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  141 

» 

the  hearty  spirit  of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  every 
officer,  as  well  as  the  employees  as  a  body." 

The  magnificent  scientific  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  resulting  during  the  year 
1911  in  a  diminution  of  63  per  cent,  of  the  accidents 
over  the  previous  twelve  months,  received  the  distinction 
of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety's  gold  medal,  placed 
at  its  disposal  by  the  Travelers  Insurance  Company  for 
annual  award  to  the  American  employer  or  corporation 
who,  in  the  judgment  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety, 
has  done  the  most  for  the  protection  of  the  lives  and  limbs 
of  its  workmen  by  means  of  safety  devices  for  danger- 
ous machines  and  processes. 

Synchronously  with  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Chicago  & 
Northwestern  Railway  Company  made  a  special  feature 
of  safety,  through  a  safety  committee.  Their  work  was 
eminently  successful.  As  a  result  of  twenty  months  of 
safety  work  ending  August  13,  1912,  personal  injuries 
to  passengers,  employees,  and  others  were  reduced  as 
follows;  51.6  per  cent,  less  trainmen  killed,  and  42.5  per 
cent,  less  injured;  40.8  per  cent  less  switchmen  killed, 
and  20.7  per  cent,  less  injured;  57.1  per  cent,  less  station- 
men  killed,  and  15  per  cent  less  injured;  36.6  per  cent, 
less  trackmen  injured,  and  31  per  cent,  less  bridgemen 
injured;  50  per  cent,  less  car-repairers  killed,  and  19  per 
cent,  less  shop  and  round  house  men  injured;  38  per  cent, 
less  unclassified  employees  injured.  Of  fatal  accidents  to 
employees  of  all  classes  there  was  a  decrease  of  29.9  per 
cent.,  and  of  31.4  per  cent,  in  injuries  to  employees  of  all 
classes.  There  were  36.3  per  cent,  less  passengers  killed 
and  1 6  per  cent,  less  injured. 

On  the  New  York  Central  lines  there  are  division  and 
shop  safety  committees,  for  the  sake  of  securing  greater 


142  SAFETY 

vigilance  and  co-operation  by  all  employees  in  preventing 
personal  injuries  of  every  character.  These  committees 
must  investigate  personal  injuries  which  may  occur  in 
their  respective  jurisdictions,  and  apply,  where  possible 
within  their  authority,  necessary  remedies  to  prevent  a 
recurrence;  another  important  function  is  the  investiga- 
tion of  all  dangerous  conditions  and  improper  practices 
which  are  contributory  to  accidents  and  the  application 
of  corrective  measures  wherever  possible. 

The  management  of  the  road  puts  the  matter  of  safety 
right  up  to  the  men  by  pointing  out  that  they  and  their 
families  are  the  ones  who  are  going  to  be  benefited  by 
the  prevention  of  accidents,  because  they  are  the  ones 
who  are  getting  hurt.  Eighty- three  per  cent,  of  the  people 
injured  on  the  railroads  of  the  United  States  last  year 
were  the  men  who  work  for  the  roads.  The  safety  de- 
partment is  organized  to  help  them  help  themselves.  The 
safety  committees  are  going  to  make  safety  a  business. 

Every  man  on  the  line,  it  matters  not  when,  where, 
how,  or  at  what  employed,  can  become  a  partner  in  this 
business.  The  investment  is  caution;  the  return,  safety. 

In  illustration  of  the  value  of  safety  committees,  the 
experience  of  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association 
may  be  cited. 

Three  men  were  selected  from  three  different  depart- 
ments and  instructed  to  make  four  whole-day  inspections 
during  the  month.  Men  were  selected  who  were  not 
only  old  employees  and  familiar  with  all  parts  of  the 
plant,  but  who  were  known  to  be  conscientious  and  not 
afraid  to  report  what  they  saw.  They  were  carefully 
instructed  in  their  work,  and  informed  that  the  company 
did  not  obligate  itself  to  accept  any  of  the  suggestions 


SAFETY    COMMITTEES  143 

or  do  any  work  They  were  paid  full  wages  while  en- 
gaged on  inspection  duties,  and  $5  each  upon  presenta- 
tion of  their  reports  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

These  working-men's  committees  revealed  the  immense 
possibilities  at  each  plant  for  improving  conditions.  Dur- 
ing the  first  month  about  one  thousand  suggestions  in  all 
were  received,  and  at  two  of  the  larger  plants  approxi- 
mately three  hundred  each.  These  recommendations  were 
described  carefully  in  writing,  numbered  consecutively, 
and  submitted  to  the  three  foremen  in  charge  of  the  de- 
partments from  which  the  men  were  selected,  who  acted  as 
a  jury  in  approving  or  disapproving  the  suggestions  made. 
The  jury  of  foremen  visited  and  inspected  all  of  the  dan- 
gerous conditions  pointed  out  by  the  working-men's  com- 
mittee, to  be  in  a  position  to  say  "Yes"  or  "No"  to  the 
recommendations.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  sug- 
gestions was  rejected  as  impracticable. 


X 

IRON   AND    STEEL 

THE  care  exercised  by  the  workmen  is  closely  related 
to  the  number  of  accidents  occurring  in  any  depart- 
ment of  industry,  and  the  best  way  to  reduce  the  number 
of  accidents  due  to  carelessness  is  by  the  inculcation  of 
caution  and  training  the  minds  of  men  to  think  for 
safety.  The  burden  of  doing  this  rests  upon  the  manage- 
ment. The  superintendent's  attitude  and  the  foreman's 
attitude  toward  the  prevention  of  accidents  will  be  re- 
flected by  the  workmen  as  accurately  as  their  attitude 
toward  getting  out  the  product  is  reflected.  If  the 
superintendent  treats  the  matter  lightly,  his  assistants  will 
treat  it  lightly.  If  he  shows  an  earnest  desire  to  have 
precautionary  rules  observed,  and  makes  the  prevention 
of  accidents  one  of  the  most  •  important  features  of  his 
department,  his  foreman  will  reflect  that  policy,  and  by 
seeing  that  the  men  observe  the  precautions  taken  for 
their  safety  such  habits  of  caution  will  be  inculcated  in 
the  men  that  the  number  of  accidents  will  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  subsidiary  companies  of  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  have  carried  on  a  cam- 
paign for  the  prevention  of  accidents  in  their  plants. 
The  safety  work  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company,  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  subsidiary  companies,  is  typical  of  what  is 
being  accomplished  through  safety  committees  at  all  of 
the  plants. 


IRON    AND    STEEL  145 

Realizing  the  necessity  for  providing  and  maintaining 
safeguards  and  proper  working  conditions,  and  of  educat- 
ing the  employees  to  a  sense  of  caution,  this  company  has 
divided  the  work  into  three  branches — namely,  the  safe- 
guarding of  dangerous  places,  the  promulgation  of  rules 
for  safe  operation,  and  the  inculcation  of  habits  of  cau- 
tion in  the  minds  of  the  workers. 

The  Illinois  Steel  Company  operates  five  plants,  each 
covering  many  acres  and  employing  thousands  of  men. 

The  plant  at  South  Chicago  covers  about  400  acres, 
and  when  running  to  its  capacity  gives  employment 
to  some  12,000  men.  Across  the  busy  train -yard  of 
this  plant  has  been  installed  a  very  important  safety 
device,  a  viaduct  422  feet  long,  which  saves  many  lives 
every  year.  Wherever  there  is  a  railroad  track  between 
a  roadway  and  a  mill,  if  it  is  at  all  practicable,  a  viaduct 
is  provided.  The  roadways  throughout  the  plant  being 
macadamized  and  well  defined  have  a  tendency  to  keep 
the  men  from  taking  dangerous  short  cuts  across  the 
tracks. 

At  the  docks  of  the  South  Chicago  plant  3,826,000  tons 
of  iron  ore  were  handled  in  a  recent  year,  during  which 
time  there  were  no  accidents  causing  the  loss  of  more  than 
two  weeks'  time  to  any  man.  At  the  docks,  where  iron 
ore  is  taken  from  vessels  by  machinery,  all  of  the  unloaders 
have  been  thoroughly  equipped  with  ladders,  stairs,  and 
railed  walks,  and  all  gears  and  shafting  have  been  guarded. 

The  Illinois  Steel  Company,  like  the  National  Tube 
Company,  has  posted  at  all  of  the  entrances  to  its  plants 
signs,  which  are  illuminated  by  night,  showing  safety 
mottoes.  These  little  safety  sermons  continually  remind 
the  men  of  their  responsibility.  The  signs  are  printed 
in  six  languages,  and  are  periodically  changed.  The 


146  SAFETY 

Illinois  Steel  Company  has  also  followed  the  example  of 
the  National  Tube  Company  in  calling  to  the  attention  of 
men  seeking  employment  the  necessity  for  caution  and 
watchfulness. 

Conspicuously  displayed  at  different  points  along  the 
main  roadways  of  the  plants  are  warning-signs,  reminding 
the  men  of  dangers  to  be  avoided  and  of  their  respon- 
sibility in  preventing  accidents. 

All  trestles  from  which  material  is  handled  should  be 
equipped  with  walks  having  railings  and  guard-boards  to 
prevent  material  and  tools  from  falling  on  persons  pass- 
ing below.  Wherever  a  driveway  or  passageway  is  di- 
rectly beneath  the  trestle,  at  that  point  it  should  be  com- 
pletely planked  over  between  the  rails  and  the  tracks. 
If  there  are  several  tracks  on  these  trestles,  a  walk 
down  the  center  of  the  trestle  for  the  use  of  switch- 
men and  men  dumping  the  cars  is  found  advantageous. 
Under  these  trestles  are  often  found  pockets  in  which 
material  is  stored.  The  gears  operating  the  drums  form- 
ing the  bottoms  of  these  pockets  should  be  covered,  and 
a  rope  safety  line  stretched  the  entire  length  of  the 
pockets,  which,  when  pulled,  cuts  off  all  power,  sets  a 
brake,  and  stops  all  machinery. 

The  new,  thin-shelled,  water-cooled  type  of  blast-fur- 
nace is  equipped  with  stairs  and  platforms  for  the  safe 
inspection  of  the  furnace  and  water-cooling  apparatus. 
The  stoves  and  furnaces  are  connected  by  walks,  with 
hand-railings  and  guard-plates  at  the  base  of  the  railings. 
Cast-houses  should  be  provided  with  stairs  or  runways 
leading  away  from  the  furnace,  so  that  in  case  of  a  break- 
down the  men  can  get  away  quickly ;  elevated  floors  should 
be  railed,  and  the  cast-houses  roofed  with  steel  plate  to 
protect  the  men  from  material  that  may  be  blown  out  of 


BLAST-FURNACE     EQUIPPED     WITH     "  BAER  "     SAFETY     EXPLOSION     VALVES,     RAILED 
STAIRWAYS   AND    PLATFORMS 


SAFETY   LOCKING   DEVICE    FOR   GAS-VALVES    IN    BOILER-HOUSE 
A — Gas-valves  connected  to  boiler. 
B— Padlock. 
C — Warning-sign. 


IRON    AND    STEEL  147 

the  top  of  a  furnace.  The  side  sheeting  should  be  brought 
down  so  far  that  storms  cannot  beat  in  on  the  runners. 
One  of  the  main  precautions  to  be  taken  in  handling  hot 
metal  is  to  keep  all  utensils  dry. 

Where  ladles  are  loaded  under  the  floor  of  a  cast-house, 
the  casting-holes  should  be  guarded  by  grates.  The 
whistles  in  the  blowing-room  should  operate  by  a  switch 
placed  behind  a  shield  together  with  the  furnace  pressure 
gage  and  the  snort -valve  lever.  When  the  switch  is 
thrown  in — to  blow  the  whistle — it  lights  an  electric  lamp 
placed  above  the  switch,  which  shows  that  the  circuit  is 
complete.  It  also  lights  a  lamp  in  the  blowing  -  engine 
room,  showing  which  furnace  is  signaling.  The  shield 
is  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  man  giving  the  signal, 
or  operating  the  lever  to  reduce  the  pressure,  should 
something  go  wrong  with  the  furnace.  All  bustle-pipes 
on  furnaces  should  be  equipped  with  railed  walks.  Mod- 
ern practice  approves  of  not  allowing  men  to  go  on  the 
bustle-pipes,  or  anywhere  above  the  furnace  floor,  with- 
out permission  from  the  foreman  in  charge  of  the  furnace, 
who  stations  another  man  to  watch  the  man  above,  to 
guard  him  against  the  danger  of  being  overcome  by  gas. 

In  the  case  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company  the  mud-gun, 
which  is  used  in  stoprling  the  tapping-hole  of  the  furnace, 
is  equipped  with  a  funnel-shaped  casting  to  prevent  the 
men  from  attempting  to  kick  the  mud  which  collects  on 
the  cylinder  into  the  hole,  and  thereby  running  the  risk 
of  having  their  feet  caught  by  the  plunger.  Before  this 
guard  was  installed  one  workman  lost  half  of  one  of  his 
feet  in  this  manner. 

Each  blast-furnace  plant  and  each  gas-engine  plant  is 
equipped  with  safety  helmets,  to  be  worn  where  there  are 

large  quantities  of  gas,  as  well  as  in  rescue  work.     A  corps 
11 


i48  SAFETY 

of  men  carefully  trained  in  rescue  and  first-aid  work  is 
always  on  hand. 

On  all  large  gas-pipes  throughout  blast-furnaces  and  at 
gas-producer  plants  the  tops  of  the  pipes  should  be  pro- 
vided with  hand-lines  to  keep  men  from  falling  off.  The 
weights  on  the  explosion  doors  should  be  fastened  with 
safety  chains,  so  that  the  weight  or  door  cannot  fall  on 
passers  below  if  the  hinge  supporting  the  door  should 
break.  Platforms  and  stairs  built  on  the  gas-washing 
apparatus  are  safeguards.  In  the  same  way,  a  railing 
at  the  base  of  the  stairs  prevents  any  one  who  has  just 
descended  from  suddenly  stepping  onto  the  railroad 
tracks  should  they  lie  close  to  the  washers.  By  causing 
him  to  walk  around  the  end  of  the  railing  his  attention 
is  called  to  the  danger  from  an  approaching  train. 

In  the  open-hearth  plants  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company, 
on  the  side  of  the  building  and  on  a  level  with  the  over- 
head electric-crane  tracks,  are  built  platforms  for  the 
crane-repair  men.  This  does  away  with  the  necessity  of 
using  swinging  scaffolds  in  repair  work. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  dropping  of  ladle-stoppers  as 
they  are  lifted  from  the  pouring  ladles  there  has  been 
devised  a  special  hook,  called  the  "pig-tail"  hook,  which 
has  been  elongated  and  curled  so  that  the  stopper  is  se- 
curely held.  When  ladles  of  metal  are  hoisted  by  cranes 
to  be  poured  into  mixers,  it  had  been  customary  to  attach 
the  hook  of  the  auxiliary  hoist,  which  is  used  to  tip  the 
ladle  in  pouring,  while  the  ladle  was  still  on  the  ground ; 
but  there  is  danger  that  the  auxiliary  will  rise  faster 
than  the  main  hoist  and  pour  the  ladle  while  in  midair. 
To  prevent  such  a  catastrophe  a  hook  has  been  devised 
which  the  crane-operator  attaches  after  the  ladle  has 
been  raised  to  the  pouring  position. 


IRON    AND    STEEL  149 

On  the  pit  side  of  the  open-hearth  furnaces,  where  the 
steel  is  poured  into  molds,  and  immediately  back  of  the 
crane  cage,  there  is  a  platform  for  the  escape  of  the  crane- 
man  if  an  explosion  of  the  hot  metal  should  occur.  This 
platform  extends  along  the  side  of  the  building,  and  is 
provided  with  railings  and  stairs,  affording  the  crane- 
man  a  quick  means  of  egress  from  the  danger  zone. 

In  rebuilding  an  open-hearth  furnace  the  furnace  and 
ports  are  torn  down  a  number  of  feet  below  the  charging- 
floor.  Before  the  precaution  was  taken  to  build  a  plank 
fence  at  the  top  of  the  opening,  to  prevent  material  from 
being  knocked  down  on  workmen  below,  injuries  from 
this  source  were  not  uncommon,  one  man  having  had  his 
back  broken. 

The  doors  at  the  bottom  of  the  cupola  are  usually  held 
shut  by  a  steel  prop,  and  in  order  to  drop  the  cupola  when 
cleaning  out  refuse  these  props  are  knocked  out  with  a 
long  bar.  To  protect  the  men  from  the  sheets  of  flame 
which  accompany  the  dropping  of  the  doors,  steel  guards 
have  been  set  up,  with  holes  through  which  the  bar  used 
in  knocking  out  the  props  may  be  inserted.  Prior  to  the 
installation  of  these  guards  a  man  working  on  the  night 
shift  had  lain  down  behind  the  cupolas,  unseen  by  the  men 
dumping  them,  and  was  fatally  burned  by  the  flames. 

When  cupolas  are  being  relined  there  is  danger  of  the 
loose  bricks  falling  from  the  stack  on  the  men  below. 
To  guard  against  this  a  screen  is  put  in  at  the  top  of  the 
cupola,  so  that  if  a  loose  brick  falls  it  is  caught  by  the 
screen.  Platforms  at  the  tops  of  cupolas  are  equipped 
with  railings  and  high  base-guards  to  prevent  material 
from  being  knocked  off  on  men  below. 

The  tops  of  dolomite  cupolas  are  frequently  covered 
only  by  the  I-beams  upon  which  the  tub  rests  when  it  is 


150  SAFETY 

dumped ;  but  at  the  works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company, 
cast  gratings  entirely  cover  the  top  of  the  cupola,  except- 
ing where  the  tub  is  dumped. 

In  the  mill  motor-room,  which  is  electrically  operated, 
the  driving-shafts  are  protected  by  removable  guards. 
Guards  are  also  placed  over  all  gears  and  shafting  in  the 
rolling-mills.  Where  the  tables  are  low,  the  guards  cover 
the  table-shafting,  the  floor-shafting,  and  the  sprocket- 
wheels,  at  the  same  time  giving  access  to  the  top  of  the 
tables.  For  safe  passageway  across  a  mill  subways  or 
viaducts  are  provided,  doing  away  with  the  dangerous 
practice  of  climbing  over  the  tables  and  running  the  risk 
of  being  struck  by  the  hot  steel. 

Bending-machines,  punches,  and  shears  are  made 
danger-proof.  The  gears  and  fly-wheels  of  bloom  shears 
in  rail-mills  are  completely  guarded,  the  gear-guards  being 
provided  with  little  doors  for  convenience  in  oiling  and 
inspection.  For  the  protection  of  workmen  operating 
the  tables  against  flying  scale,  glass  shields  have  been  in- 
stalled. Couplings,  gears,  and  shafts  of  cambering-ma- 
chines  are  provided  with  removable  plate,  or  steel,  guards. 

All  levers  controlling  the  operation  of  machinery  are  so 
constructed  that  they  may  be  locked,  making  it  impos- 
sible for  the  power  to  be  turned  on  by  accident.  Before 
working  on  the  machinery  workmen  are  required  to  at- 
tach a  warning-tag  to  the  lever  lock.  This  lock  requires 
the  use  of  both  hands,  as  the  lever  cannot  be  moved 
without  depressing  the  spring  and  turning  the  locking 
device  down. 

Large  enameled  signs  are  conspicuously  displayed 
bearing  the  notice:  " Never  work  on  a  table,  crane,  or 
other  machinery  before  notifying  the  operator  and  at- 
taching a  danger  tag,  bearing  your  name,  at  the  point 


COVER-GUARDS    AND    DANGER-SIGN    ON    FLY-WHEEL    AND    GEARS    OF    DOUBLE    ANGLE 

SHEARS 


COVER-GUARDS   FOR  32  "   LATHE.      NATIONAL   TUBE   COMPANY 


IRON    AND    STEEL  151 

where  the  power  is  turned  on.  Get  these  tags  from  your 
foreman."  The  workman's  name  must  be  written  or 
painted  on  the  tag. 

Guards  on  legs,  light  and  convenient  to  handle,  are  set 
before  the  roll-train  spindles  or  driving-shafts  of  bar- 
mills.  The  ends  of  wabblers  on  roll- trains  are  guarded 
with  steel  shields,  as  the  unguarded  ends  have  been 
known  to  catch  the  clothing  of  workmen,  drawing  them 
to  death  or  inflicting  painful  injuries. 

At  the  ends  of  loading-beds  are  guards  preventing  the 
falling  off  of  material,  but  not  interfering  with  the  load- 
ing of  cars.  The  danger  from  falling  material  has  been 
brought  home  in  numerous  accidents  to  workmen  below. 

Semicircular  plate  shields  are  used  to  guard  the  sprock- 
ets and  chains  on  chain  conveyors  in  sheet-mills.  All  belts 
and  pulleys  are  guarded  to  a  height  of  at  least  five  feet. 
A  simple  way  of  guarding  shafting  is  by  means  of  a  steel 
plate  bent  into  the  form  of  a  triangle  or  an  inverted  U, 
attached  to  the  bearings  and  gear-guards. 

Lathe-gears  are  entirely  inclosed  with  shields  that 
can  be  swung  back  out  of  the  way  when  oiling  or  changing 
the  speed. 

In  guarding  belts  on  cone-pulleys  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  devise  a  belt-shifter  which  could  be  worked 
through  the  guard,  which  not  only  serves  as  a  safety  de- 
vice, but  actually  increases  the  speed  of  operation. 

To  eliminate  the  danger  of  limbs  being  caught  between 
the  table  and  ribs  of  a  planer-bed,  a  plate  guard  may  be 
placed  over  the  bed.  When  the  beds  are  left  open  they 
are  frequently  used  as  receptacles  for  tools  and  oil  cans. 
Workmen  have  been  known  to  have  their  fingers  crushed 
while  trying  to  get  oil  from  an  oil  well  in  a  planer.  To 
prevent  such  accidents,  plate  shields  have  been  placed 


iS2  SAFETY 

over  wells.  Investigation  having  shown  that  men  have 
lost  the  ends  of  their  fingers  in  attempting  to  adjust  the 
feed-gears  of  a  planer  while  keeping  their  eyes  on  the  job 
on  the  planer,  these  gears  are  now  provided  with  guards. 

When  the  use  of  a  set-screw  is  necessary  in  facing  the 
under  side  of  a  cut,  the  set-screw  is  countersunk  and 
guarded  by  a  sliding  cover.  Boring-mills  have  their 
gears  guarded,  a  plate  guard  in  front  of  the  mill-table, 
and  a  guard  around  the  counterweight,  so  that  if  the 
cable  should  break  the  weight  cannot  fall  on  any  one. 

All  emery-wheels  over  eight  feet  in  diameter  have  a 
safety  taper  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  and 
are  provided  with  safety  collars.  If  the  wheel  breaks-  the 
pieces  cannot  fly  out,  but  are  held  in  place.  Large  grind- 
stones are  provided  with  substantial  guards  or  hoods. 

Band-saws  have  hinged  guards  covering  the  top  and 
front  of  the  saw  to  prevent  the  flying  out  of  the  saw  if 
it  breaks,  and  a  head-guard  extending  down  the  front  of 
the  saw  to  prevent  the  workman's  head  from  coming  into 
contact  with  the  saw.  The  saw  below  the  table  is  cased 
in.  Circular  saws  are  provided  with  practical  guards. 

The  National  Tube  Company  has  devised  a  guard  for 
circular  saws  which,  in  addition  to  safeguarding  the  saw 
from  above,  may  be  used  to  push  the  end  of  the  wood 
through  the  saw,  thus  preventing  injuries  to  the  hands 
when  working  close  to  the  teeth  of  the  saw. 

Belts  and  pulleys  in  the  carpenter  shop  are  entirely 
inclosed  in  steel  casings.  The  knives  of  wood-jointers 
are  guarded  with  a  device  having  a  strong  spring  to  draw 
the  guard  back.  The  best  safety  device  for  these  joint- 
ers, however,  is  the  circular  cutter-head,  or  safety  cylin- 
der, which,  instead  of  pulling  a  man's  hand  into  the  knives, 
throws  it  out  of  the  machine.  In  the  event  of  an  acci- 


IRON    AND    STEEL  153 

dent,  instead  of  losing  his  fingers  or  hands,  as  in  the  case 
of  an  old-fashioned  " square"  cutter-head,  he  merely  sus- 
tains slight  cuts  on  the  finger-tips. 

Men  working  at  high  elevations,  on  poles  and  smoke- 
stacks, should  be  required  to  wear  safety  belts  and  life- 
lines, which  are  attached  independently  of  the  tackle,  so 
that  if  the  tackle  holding  the  scaffold  or  rigging  breaks 
the  man  will  be  supported  by  his  life-line.  Workmen  did 
not  take  kindly  to  this  safety  device  when  first  installed, 
but  now  would  not  work  without  it. 

In  the  foundry,  the  large  receptacle  in  which  iron  is 
retained  before  it  is  poured  is  provided  with  a  plate 
fence,  instead  of  railings  around  the  platform,  to  prevent 
the  crane-hooks  from  catching.  The  levers  controlling 
the  operation  of  the  mixer  are  guarded  with  plate  shields 
for  the  same  reason.  Brass  converters  are  provided  with 
spark-shields. 

It  is  very  important  that  foundry  workers  wear  sound 
shoes  to  protect  their  feet  from  possible  burns  by  spilled 
metal.  The  Illinois  Steel  Company  urges  upon  its  work- 
men the  wearing  of  the  "Congress"  shoes,  which,  besides 
offering  protection,  can  be  slipped  off  quickly  in  case  of 
accident.  A  steel  shield  on  the  side  of  foundry  hand- 
ladles  has  protected  the  hands  of  many  workers  who  have 
stumbled  and  slopped  the  hot  metal. 

In  the  power-plant,  the  ends  of  piston-rods  extending 
beyond  the  cylinder-heads  are  guarded  so  as  to  prevent 
any  one  from  getting  close  enough  to  the  cylinder  to  be 
struck  by  the  rod.  A  railed  walk  has  been  placed  on  the 
top  of  each  boiler  leading  from  boiler  to  boiler.  Each 
boiler  is  equipped  with  a  non-return  valve,  so  that  if  a 
tube  bursts  or  there  is  some  other  explosion  the  valve 
closes  automatically  and  the  steam  cannot  rush  into  this 


154  SAFETY 

boiler  from  the  others.  Many  precautions  are  set  forth 
in  the  boiler-house  rules,  such  as  numbering  boilers, 
blow-off  line  relief,  stop-valves,  valves  in  feed-water  con- 
nections, and  drains  in  pockets. 

Fly-wheels  are  guarded  with  plate  or  wire-net  guards. 
At  all  points  on  engine-beds  where  it  is  necessary  for  the 
oiler  to  walk  railings  or  plate  guards  are  provided.  The 
governor  is  driven  by  a  three-rope  drive,  dependence  not 
being  placed  on  a  single  rope  or  belt.  A  device  has  been 
installed  to  call  attention  to  broken  strands,  which  strike 
a  board  hinged  to  the  pulley-guard,  throwing  the  board 
back,  and  thus  notifying  the  engineer. 

All  overhead  cranes  are  provided  with  railed  walks  on 
both  bridge  girders,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
crane.  The  trolley,  or  carriage,  is  floored  over  and  pro- 
vided with  a  railed  walk.  Hoists  are  equipped  with  a 
limit  switch,  which  prevents  overwinding,  breaking  of  the 
cable,  and  dropping  the  load  on  the  workmen.  Each 
crane  has  a  safety  switch,  cutting  off  all  power  and  making 
it  impossible  for  an  absent-minded  operator  to  forget  that 
men  are  working  above.  When  a  man  goes  on  top  of  a 
crane  he  pulls  out  this  switch  and  attaches  a  sign  reading 
" Danger — Do  Not  Move."  A  box  is  provided  on  the 
crane  bridge  for  tools,  oil  cans,  and  other  articles.  Ex- 
tending out  from  the  truck-wheels  of  cranes  are  brush 
guards  to  warn  a  person  resting  his  hand  on  the  rail  of 
the  approach  of  the  crane,  which  he  might  fail  to  note 
because  of  other  noises.  The  number  of  arms  and  hands 
lost  by  persons  thoughtlessly  resting  against  the  crane 
runway  has  made  such  a  device  necessary.  Trolley-gears 
and  truck  drive-gears  are  guarded.  The  flooring  over  the 
trolley  carriage  not  only  prevents  the  falling  off  of  pieces 
of  machinery,  but  also  serves  as  a  good  repair  platform. 


IRON    AND    STEEL  155 

Where  ladders  are  used  to  reach  the  crane-cab,  a  landing- 
platform  is  provided  at  the  top  of  the  ladder,  with  a  short 
ladder  leading  from  the  platform  to  the  edge  of  the  cage, 
to  prevent  a  man  climbing  the  main  ladder  to  such  a 
height  that  he  could  take  hold  of  the  power-rails.  Wher- 
ever possible,  stairs  are  provided  for  the  crane  operation, 
and  steel  walks  with  railings  and  toe-boards  placed  paral- 
lel with  crane  runways.  All  gantry  cranes  are  equipped 
with  fenders  over  the  truck- wheels,  a  walk  the  entire 
length  of  the  crane  bridge,  a  safety  switch  on  top  of  the 
bridge,  and  with  automatic  warning  bells. 

Switchboards  with  a  voltage  of  over'  250  volts  are  in- 
cased, and  all  points  of  danger  completely  safeguarded. 

The  danger  of  being  caught  between  a  locomotive 
crane  boiler  and  the  truck-frame  as  the  crane-boom  is 
swung  back  and  forth  is  met  by  a  device  or  fence  on  the 
truck-frame,  which  guards  the  danger  zone  while  the 
crane  is  working  and  can  be  folded  back  against  the  frame 
when  the  crane  is  running  through  the  yard. 

When  railroad  tracks  run  close  to  buildings,  railings 
are  placed  at  the  corners  to  prevent  men  stepping  from 
the  buildings  onto  the  tracks.  Wherever  a  man  might  be 
crushed  in  a  narrow  space  between  a  building  and  the 
tracks,  an  inclined  plate  at  that  place  makes  it  impossible 
for  him  to  get  into  such  a  dangerous  position. 

Cleanliness  about  the  shops  and  yards  is  strongly  en- 
forced as  a  factor  in  preventing  accidents  due  to  untidy 
conditions. 

The  Central  Committee  of  Safety  of  the  Illinois  Steel 
Company,  after  careful  consideration,  adopts  and  recom- 
mends for  use  at  all  its  plants  such  devices  as  have  proved 
most  practical  and  effective  in  preventing  accidents.  A 
book  of  plans  for  safety  devices  has  been  prepared  under 


i56  SAFETY 

the  direction  of  this  committee  to  standardize  the  appli- 
ances and  precautions  for  safety,  to  insure  the  provision 
of  efficient  safeguards  at  the  time  construction  work  is 
planned  and  machinery  installed,  and  to  show  the  con- 
ditions to  be  maintained  during  operation.  This  book 
has  been  prepared  in  loose-leaf  form,  so  that  additions 
or  changes  can  be  made  from  time  to  time.  The  plates 
are  reduced  drawings  of  actual  construction,  and  are  to 
be  used  by  the  engineering  department  as  examples  only. 
The  dimensions  given  are  not  required  to  be  followed, 
unless  they  are  made  obligatory  in  the  specifications. 

All  plans  or  specifications  for  new  constructions,  alter- 
ations, or  replacements  must  be  checked  for  safety,  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  superintendents  of  plants  to  see  that 
safety  devices  and  precautions  specified  in  the  book  of 
standard  devices  are  complied  with  before  machinery  or 
plants  are  put  into  operation.  No  new  machinery  or 
plant  may  be  put  into  operation  without  the  approval 
of  the  safety  inspector,  except  upon  the  specific  order  of 
the  general  superintendent  of  the  plant.  No  machine 
tools  may  be  ordered  unless  the  plans  and  specifications 
have  been  checked  for  safety. 

The  Safety  Committee  has  also  prepared  with  great 
care  rules  for  safety  in  operation.  The  rule-book  for  the 
use  of  superintendents  and  foremen  is  printed  in  English, 
and  includes  general  instructions  from  the  president  of 
the  company,  regulations  regarding  co-operation  of  work- 
men, rules  governing  the  construction  and  installation 
of  machinery,  and  physical  conditions  to  be  maintained. 
The  second  book  of  rules,  printed  in  the  several  languages 
spoken  by  the  employees,  is  distributed  to  all  employees 
of  the  company  who  are  not  superintendents  or  foremen, 
and  contains  the  same  instruction  as  the  other,  excepting 


IRON    AND    STEEL  157 

the  rules  for  the  construction  and  installation  of  ma- 
chinery. 

Each  employee  is  required  to  read  the  book  of  rules  and 
to  satisfy  his  foreman  that  he  is  familiar  with  its  contents. 
Both  the  foreman  and  the  employee  must  sign  a  statement 
to  that? effect  upon  a  form  provided  for  the  purpose.  When 
men  are  placed  at  work  on  new  jobs  entailing  any  hazard, 
they  must  be  fully  instructed  by  the  foreman  in  charge 
as  to  the  dangers  of  the  work.  If  the  foreman  is  satisfied 
that  a  workman  understands  the  danger  and  is  prepared 
for  it,  he  must  certify  to  that  effect  to  the  department 
superintendent,  upon  a  special  form,  upon  which  the  work- 
man must  also  set  forth  that  he  has  been  instructed, 
understands  the  danger,  and  will  be  careful  of  his  own 
safety  as  well  as  the  safety  of  others. 

The  Central  Committee  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company 
consists  of  the  safety  inspector  and  assistant  general 
superintendent  of  each  of  its  plants ;  the  general  attorney, 
who  acts  as  chairman  of  the  committee;  his  assistant  in 
charge  of  accident  matters  in  the  law  department,  the 
manager  of  the  safety  and  relief  department,  who  acts 
as  secretary  of  the  committee;  and  a  stenographer  to  take 
the  record  of  all  the  proceedings.  This  committee  meets 
at  the  company's  main  office  in  Chicago  once  a  month 
for  an  all-day  meeting.  At  these  meetings  all  accidents 
which  have  occurred  at  the  several  plants  of  the  company 
and  are  considered  serious  are  discussed;  and  ways  and 
means  devised  for  preventing  similar  accidents  at  any  of 
the  plants,  if  this  is  possible.  The  recommendations  of  the 
committee  are  accepted  and  carried  out  at  all  plants 
without  question,  unless  extraordinary  circumstances  make 
such  a  course  impossible. 

It  is  the  practice  of  the  committee  to  obtain  the  advice 


158  SAFETY 

and  judgment  of  the  men  in  the  various  works  who  are 
specialists  in  the  particular  branch  of  the  work  that  may 
be  involved  in  the  accident  under  consideration,  thus 
facilitating  the  installation  of  adequate  devices. 

One  of  the  first  steps  taken  by  the  Central  Committee 
of  Safety  to  interest  the  men  in  safety  and  to  intulcate 
habits  of  caution,  was  the  organization  of  local  safety 
committees  at  all  of  the  plants.  Two  plans  have  been 
followed  in  this  work — namely,  the  organization  of 
committees  of  foremen,  designated  as  permanent  safety 
committees,  and  the  organization  of  workmen's  safety 
committees,  composed  entirely  of  workmen  below  the 
grade  of  foremen. 

Each  department  has  a  permanent  safety  committee, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  make  monthly  inspections  of  the  de- 
partment, to  see  that  all  safety  devices  approved  by  their 
superintendents  have  been  installed,  and  to  investigate 
all  accidents  where  the  injured  man  loses  ten  days'  time 
or  more,  or  accidents  having  special  features.  The  com- 
mittee reports  how  the  accident  occurred,  what  can  be 
done  to  prevent  a  similar  accident,  and  whether,  in  its 
opinion,  any  one  was  negligent.  Where  the  injured  man 
has  been  careless,  the  committee  lets  him  know  that  it 
does  not  approve  of  his  actions,  and  this  inquiry  into  the 
culpability  of  an  employee  by  a  jury  of  his  peers  is  said 
to  have  had  a  very  good  effect  and  to  have  done  much 
toward  reducing  the  number  of  accidents. 

In  forming  the  workmen's  committees  the  plants  are 
divided  into  divisions,  each  consisting  of  three  depart- 
ments or  mills.  One  workman  is  chosen  from  each 
department  to  act  as  a  member  of  the  committee,  to  in- 
spect dangerous  places,  to  consult  with  the  men  at  their 
work,  getting  suggestions  as  to  safer  methods  of  doing 


WIRE-MESH    GUARDS    AROUND    FLY-WHEEL 
AND    DRUM    GEARS 


GUARDS   AROUND   FLY-WHEEL    AND  GUARDS    AROUND    HIGH-SPEED    ENGINE 

CONDENSER   PUMP 


GUARD  AROUND  FLY-WHEEL  AND  GENERATOR,   WITH  RAILED   STAIRS  AND  PLATFORM 
TYPES  OF  FLY-WHEEL  GUARDS  OF  THE  U.  S.  STEEL  CORPORATION 


IRON    AND    STEEL  159 

that  particular  work,  and  to  sow  seeds  of  caution. 
The  members  of  the  workmen's  committee  serve  one 
month,  and  spend  one  day  each  week  inspecting  their 
division.  When  a  committee  is  organized  all  of  the  su- 
perintendents of  the  departments  included  in  that  divi- 
sion and  the  safety  inspector  meet  with  the  committee, 
go  over  the  work  with  them,  and  impress  upon  them  the 
interest  of  the  superintendents  in  the  work.  The  men 
are  urged  not  to  drop  their  interest  in  safety  after  their 
term  as  commit teemen  has  expired,  but  to  continue  to 
make  suggestions.  Not  only  do  the  men  do  this,  but 
other  men  who  have  served  on  committees  are  encouraged 
to  come  to  the  superintendents  with  suggestions.  Inter- 
division  and  inter- works  inspection  —  that  is,  having  a 
committee  inspect  a  division  or  plant  other  than  its  own — - 
creates  a  rivalry  among  the  men,  and  gives  the  work 
greater  importance  in  their  eyes,  making  it  seem  more  of 
an  honor  to  be  selected  as  a  committeeman. 

At  each  plant  entrance  are  bulletin-boards  displaying 
the  list  of  departments  which  have  kept  in  the  "Booster 
Class"  for  the  past  month — in  other  words,  the  depart- 
ments that  have  kept  their  accidents  below  a  certain 
percentage.  Newspaper  clippings  reporting  industrial 
accidents  throughout  the  United  States  are  also  posted 
on  the  bulletin-boards,  together  with  rules  and  illustra- 
tions of  devices  in  use  by  the  Illinois  Steel  Company 
which  would  have  prevented  these  accidents. 

Another  stimulus  for  safety  is  the  distribution  of  cigars 
bearing  the  "Boost  for  Safety"  bands  among  foremen  and 
workmen  who  establish  records  in  keeping  down  acci- 
dents or  make  pertinent  suggestions  for  safety, or  in  other 
ways  help  to  promote  the  cause  of  safety.  "Boost  for 
Safety"  paper-weights  are  presented  to  foremen  and 


160  SAFETY 

workmen,  with  a  view  to  keeping  always  before  them  the 
fact  that  safety  is  the  first  consideration.  To  each  man 
showing  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  safety  rules  a  badge 
of  distinction  is  presented  by  the  management.  Work- 
men as  well  as  foremen  compete  for  these  badges,  in  order 
to  obtain  which  they  must  first  pass  an  examination  on 
the  rules  and  precautions  for  safety,  with  an  average  of 
at  least  90  per  cent.  This  plan  is  not  only  insuring  a 
better  knowledge  of  the  rules  on  the  part  of  foremen  and 
workmen,  but  the  eagerness  with  which  all  classes  of 
workers  compete  for  the  buttons  and  the  pride  of  those 
obtaining  them  have  shown  them  to  be  of  valuable 
assistance  in  inculcating  habits  of  caution  in  the  minds 
of  the  workmen. 

In  the  plants  of  the  American  Steel  and  Wire  Company 
automatic  stops  are  provided  at  the  wire-drawing  blocks, 
the  rod  or  wire  being  carried  through  the  eye  of  the  lever 
connected  with  the  motive  power,  so  that  a  snarl  in  the 
wire  will  throw  the  lever  forward  and  stop  the  block. 
In  addition  to  this  safeguard  a  rope  is  attached  to  the 
lever,  carried  over  the  sheaves  above  the  frame  and  down 
at  the  right-hand  side  of  "the  block,  so  that  if  a  man  should 
be  caught  and  drawn  around  the  block  he  would  strike 
this  rope  and  stop  the  block  automatically.  In  its  boiler- 
houses  this  same  company  has  installed  a  guard  for 
water -gage  glasses,  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  turned 
around,  coming  between  the  workman  and  the  glass 
while  the  glass  is  being  tested  or  heated.  It  may  then 
be  turned  back  of  the  glass,  giving  a  clear  view  of  the 
gage.  An  electric  lamp  installed  at  each  water-gage  ena- 
bles one  to  see  the  water-line  clearly.  The  American  Steel 
and  Wire  Company  has  also  equipped  its  small  die-grinders 


IRON    AND    STEEL  161 

with  hoods,  plate-glass  shields  to  protect  the  workmen's 
eyes,  exhaust  systems,  and  shaded  electric  lamps — a  model 
installation  for  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the  workersjon 
these  machines. 

At  the  Inland  Steel  Company  plant  what  are  known  as 
their  "Ten  Commandments  "  are  the  industrial  Decalogue, 
and  must  be  obeyed  in  the  interests  of  accident  prevention 
and  health  promotion. 

1.  Get  the  safety  habit.     Don't  take  chances.    Learn  all  the  rules; 
understand  your  work  thoroughly.    Study  the  dangers  incident  there- 
to, and  avoid  them.    Think  before  you  act. 

2.  Do  not  work  with  defective  chains,  cables,  tools,  or  appliances 
of  any  kind,  or  in  an  unsafe  place.     Carefully  examine  and  report 
dangerous  conditions  to  your  foreman. 

3.  Never  work  on  a  crane,  table  or  other  machinery  until  you  have 
notified  the  operator  and  attached  a  sign,  "Danger — Do  Not  Move," 
bearing  your  name,  at  the  point  wherever  the  power  is  turned  on. 
No  man  except  the  man  who  placed  it  should  remove  such  sign. 

4.  Do  not  turn  on  any  electricity,  gas,  steam,  air,  acid,  or  water, 
or  set  in  motion  any  machinery,  or  throw  down  any  material  without 
first  seeing  if  any  one  is  in  a  position  to  be  injured  and  if  all  safety 
guards  are  in  their  proper  place. 

5.  Do  not  go  onto  an  overhead  crane  runway  for  any  purpose  with- 
out permission  from  your  foreman,  and  then  not  until  the  cranemen 
have  been  notified  and  a  sign,  "  Danger — Men  on  Crane  Track,"  hung 
in  cage  before  cranemen.   After  notifying  cranemen  attach  bumping- 
block  to  crane  rail  between  where  you  are  working  and  cranes.    Use 
same  precautions  when  working  near  crane  tracks. 

6.  Wear  goggles  when  working  around  circular  saws,   chipping, 
handling  acid,  cutting  cables,  and  working  at  emery-wheels. 

7.  Do  not  ride  on  or  operate  engines,  cars,  cranes,  elevators,  or 
other  moving    bodies  or   tamper  with   electrical   apparatus    unless 
authorized  to  do  so.     Never  leave  your  regular  place  of  work  except 
when  required  by  your  duties. 

8.  If  you  make  an  opening  or  remove  the  cover  from  any  opening 
in  floor,  ground,  valve-pit  or  sewer,  guard  that  opening  so  that  no  one 
can  fall  into  it. 

9.  Do  not  pile  any  material  so  high  it  is  liable  to  fall  or  cause  another 
pile  to  fall,  or  allow  it  to  lean  against  walls  too  weak  to  bear  the 
pressure. 


i62  SAFETY 

10.  Commit  no  nuisance,  be  clean,  and  help  to  keep  the  plant  clean. 
Conduct  your  private  life  so  that  you  are  at  all  times  in  the  very  best 
physical  condition,  wide  awake,  and  active. 

The  effect  of  the  energetic  safety  campaign  of  the  steel 
companies  is  an  example  of  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  systematic  work  in  accident  prevention.  While  satis- 
factory statistics  are  not  available  from  all  the  plants  in 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  from  those  that  have 
been  furnished  it  is  seen  that  serious  accidents  in  iron 
and  steel  works  have  been  reduced  by  50  to  66^3  per  cent. 

W.  H.  Cameron,  in  a  discussion  before  the  American 
Foundrymen's  Association,  reckoned  the  average  man's 
value  at  $600  a  year.  He  then  pointed  out  that  each 
worker  in  iron  and  steel  stands  for  an  engine  or  industrial 
plant  worth  $10,000,  producing  at  6  per  cent,  an  income 
of  $600.  The  death  of  the  average  workman,  therefore, 
is  equivalent  to  the  destruction  of  a  $10,000  mill  or  en- 
gine. In  showing  that  the  legislative  tendencies  of  recent 
years  have  been  to  place  the  entire  liability  for  these 
accidents  upon  the  employers,  and  that  the  problem  of 
meeting  this  responsibility  is  an  exceedingly  serious  one, 
he  stated  that  the  time  had  come  not  simply  to  safeguard 
machines  and  working  conditions,  but  to  know  how  to 
protect  workmen  against  themselves.  Employers  well 
know  that  the  workman's  carelessness  breaks  delicate 
machinery;  his  ignorance  spoils  raw  material;  his  idle- 
ness blows  up  boilers;  his  recklessness  destroys  engines; 
and  he  is  just  as  thoughtless  of  his  fellow- workmen's 
safety  as  his  own.  "In  a  word,  the  most  difficult  phase  of 
the  subject  is  to  know  how  to  wake  up  the  employee  to  a 
sense  of  his  duty  toward  himself  and  his  fellow-workers, 
and  to  assist  in  the  prevention  of  accidents." 


IRON    AND    STEEL  163 

Foundry  workers  seem  easily  disposed  to  pulmonary 
diseases  and  affections  of  the  respiratory  tract,  rheumatism, 
and  kidney  trouble.  Lung  trouble  is  increased  by  breath- 
ing dust  and  gritty  air,  coming  either  from  the  cleaning 
of  castings  with  steel  brushes,  emery-wheels,  or  sand-blast. 
The  sand-blaster  should  be  protected  with  an  adequate 
helmet,  and  the  emery-wheel  provided  with  exhaust  and 
screens. 

Kidney  trouble  among  foundrymen  is  frequently  the 
outcome  of  breathing  air  with  a  high  percentage  of  car- 
bon monoxide,  or  CO,  present.  It  is  obvious  that  effect- 
ive ventilation  would  relieve  this  difficulty.  Diphtheria 
and  rheumatism  have  resulted  from  unsanitary  lockers. 
Foundries  are  often  badly  heated  in  general,  although  the 
heat  is  locally  intense  at  certain  times. 

The  core-oven  is  a  danger-point  not  only  on  account 
of  the  irrespirable  character  of  air  rich  in  carbon  mon- 
oxide, but  also,  in  cases  where  the  doors  are  fitted  with  a 
common  latch  worked  only  from  the  outside,  because  if 
the  oven  doors  swing  shut  in  a  draught  or  by  their  own 
weight,  the  molder  may  be  imprisoned  inside  with  no  one 
near  to  hear  his  cries.  Oven  doors  should  always  be 
made  to  open  both  from  the  inside  and  out,  with  adequate 
electric  lighting. 

The  charging-floor  has  dangers  of  its  own,  particularly 
during  that  part  of  the  melting -process  in  the  cupola 
when  large  quantities  of  carbon  monoxide  are  given 
off. 

Burns,  bruises,  and  sprains  seem  to  be  the  most  fre- 
quent types  of  foundry  injury.  Even  in  these  days  of 
well-arranged  foundries  the  workman  often  is  tempted 
to  lift  a  cope  or  springs  to  prevent  the  fall  of  one  which 
is  improperly  braced,  and  severe  sprains  and  internal 

12 


i64  SAFETY 

injuries,  hernia,  and  the  like  are  caused.  The  gangway 
or  available  floor  space  for  copes  is  often  so  restricted  that 
loaded  copes  on  edge  are  a  menace  to  passers-by  and  to 
the  molder  himself.  Burns  may  be  expected  from  gas 
explosions  in  the  molds,  and  from  spilt  metal  running 
anywhere  over  a  wet  surface  where  steam-gas  can  be 
formed  under  the  iron.  Burns  of  the  explosive  sort  can 
be  very  severe,  and  are  always  dangerous  to  the  eye.  A 
small  particle  of  hot  metal  brushing  the  eye  with  a  glanc- 
ing blow  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  sight.  Probably,  how- 
ever, the  greatest  danger  from  burning  is  from  spills  of 
molten  metal. 

In  foundry  practice  the  menace  of  molten  metal  is  al- 
ways present.  A  ladle  falling  and  throwing  its  contents 
over  men  who  cannot  get  away  is  fatal,  and  the  cutting 
of  hot  metal  through  the  side  of  the  ladle  from  careless- 
ness in  repairing  its  lining,  may  cause  distressing  if  not 
fatal  accidents. 

The  danger  zone  of  ladle  accidents  is  where  the  spout 
from  the  cupola  delivers  into  a  catch-ladle  from  which 
the  crane-ladle  is  filled.  The  former  is  a  necessity,  as  it 
receives  melted  iron  while  the  crane-ladle  is  being  emptied 
into  molds  at  some  distant  point,  and  it  also  gives  an  op- 
portunity for  skimming  before  the  iron  is  decanted  into 
the  ladle  which  is  to  be  used  in  filling  the  molds. 

In  the  shops  of  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing 
Company  it  is  the  practice  to  depress  that  part  of  the  floor 
of  the  foundry  into  which  the  crane-ladle  is  lowered  for 
filling.  This  hole  not  only  enables  the  catch-ladle  to  be 
quite  close  to  the  ground,  but  in  case  of  accident  and  the 
breaking  through  of  the  molten  metal,  the  metal  falls  into 
the  pit  and  does  no  harm  beyond  the  great  inconve- 
nience of  getting  it  out. 


WELL-LIGHTED   FOUNDRY 


PORTABLE   FORGE   WITH   EXHAUSTS 


WELL-GUARDED    MACHINES 

THREE    VIEWS    IN    THE    ALLGEMEINE    ELEKTRICITAETS 
GESELLSCHAFT,    BERLIN 


IRON    AND    STEEL  165 

The  bottom  of  the  pit  has  a  platen  or  platform  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  plunger  of  a  hydraulic  cylinder.  When 
the  cupola  is  not  running  this  platen  may  be  lifted  in 
place,  closing  the  hole  in  the  floor  for  safety.  When  the 
ladle  is  to  be  filled  the  platen  is  lowered  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pit.  Care,  of  course,  is  to  be  taken  to  safeguard  the 
hydraulic  cylinder  from  the  attack  of  hot  metal  should 
any  leak  or  fall  into  the  cracks  at  the  bottom  of  the  pit ; 
and,  of  course,  there  must  be  no  leakage  of  water  to  cause 
explosions.  The  form  of  crane-ladle  is  the  conventional 
design  whereby  the  containing  -  vessel  may  be  turned 
around  its  trunnions  by  a  hand-wheel  or  gear.  If  the 
trunnions  are  located  so  as  to  be  a  little  above  the  axis 
through  the  center  of  gravity  when  the  ladle  is  full,  they 
will  be  proportionately  too  high  when  the  ladle  is  emptied. 
The  gearing  must  therefore  be  irreversible  by  friction  or 
other  device,  so  that  under  no  circumstances  can  the  ladle 
operate  the  hand-wheel  and  tend  to  upset  itself  auto- 
matically. 

In  all  foundries  accidents  occur  through  which  the 
feet  are  burned  by  slopping  metal.  The  American  Foun- 
drymen's  Association  considers  it  is  very  important 
that  workmen  wear  whole  shoes,  so  constructed  that  they 
may  be  slipped  off  quickly.  They  urge  upon  workmen 
the  necessity  for  wearing  "  Congress  "  shoes  and  buck- 
skin leggings  to  fit  over  the  tops  of  the  shoes.  They 
have  undertaken  to  keep  a  stock  of  such  shoes  on  hand 
at  all  plants,  which  are  sold  to  the  workmen  at  whole- 
sale prices.  The  result  is  that  the  workman  buys  the 
shoes  and  protects  himself  from  accident,  and  the  com- 
pany benefits  by  keeping  the  workman  constantly  at  his 
job,  and  by  a  reduction  of  the  accident  expense  account. 
These  shoes  and  other  safeguards,  such  as  leggings,  buck- 


i66  SAFETY 

skin  gloves,  leather  aprons,  helmets,  spectacles,  and 
respirators,  should  be  exhibited  in  a  cabinet  close  to 
the  entrance  of  the  plant,  so  as  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  all  workmen  and  stimulate  them  to  self -pro- 
tection. 


XI 

MINES    AND    MINING 

ACCORDING  to  statistics  recently  furnished  by  the 
2\  Director  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Mines,  for  every 
183,000  tons  of  coal  mined  in  the  United  States  one  miner 
is  killed.  In  1907,  about  the  time  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
commenced  its  work,  one  miner  was  killed  for  every 
144,000  tons  of  coal  mined.  This  decrease  in  the  rate  of 
mortality  has  been  attributed  to  the  government's  activity 
in  the  coal-fields;  but  credit  is  also  due  the  progressive 
mine  operators  throughout  the  country  who  have  co- 
operated with  the  government  and  in  some  instances 
have  developed  their  own  safety  work  so  well  as  to  be 
able  to  give  the  federal  Bureau  some  valuable  suggestions. 

To  these  operators  any  detailed  description  of  the  in- 
vestigations of  the  Bureau  into  accidents  and  their  pre- 
vention, and  training  in  rescue  work,  would  be  super- 
fluous; but  to  the  general  public  a  brief  account  of  the 
National  Safety  Demonstration,  organized  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  in  Pittsburg,  October 
30  and  31,  1911,  will  no  doubt  prove  of  interest. 

After  many  conferences  with  coal-mine  operators, 
mine-workers,  American  Red  Cross  officials,  and  others 
interested  in  the  prevention  of  mine  accidents,  the  Bureau 
fourid  evidence  of  a  wide-spread  desire  to  hold  at  the 
government's  experimental  station  at  Pittsburg  an  ex- 
hibition of  various  means  of  promoting  safety  in  mines, 


i68  SAFETY 

including  a  demonstration  of  permissible  and  non- 
permissible  explosives,  rescue  methods,  breathing  -  appa- 
ratus, and  a  general  meet  or  contest  in  first  -  aid  work 
between  competing  teams  from  the  different  coal  com- 
panies. 

Demonstrations  were  made  of  safety  lamps  and  various 
types  of  artificial  breathing-apparatus,  and  experiments 
carried  out  in  the  Bureau's  laboratories  and  galleries  with 
gas,  explosion-proof  motors,  explosives,  and  coal-dust. 

At  the  government's  experimental  mine  near  Bruce- 
ton,  outside  of  Pittsburg,  a  complete  mine  explosion  was 
prepared  and  set  off  for  the  entertainment  of  the  visitors, 
who,  after  ventilation  had  been  restored,  were  permitted 
to  enter  the  mine  and  study  the  effects  of  the  explosion. 

.  The  first-aid  exhibition,  in  .which  forty  teams  of  trained 
miners  representing  mining  companies  from  all  sections 
of  the  United  States  participated,  formed  one  of  the  most 
interesting  demonstrations  of  this  kind  that  has  ever 
been  seen  in  the  United  States. 

In  addition  to  the  treatment  of  wounds,  burns,  dis- 
locations, fractures,  and  electric  shock,  a  special  demon- 
stration of  rescue  methods  was  made  in  connection  with 
the  tests  of  permissible  explosives  and  black  powder. 
Immediately  following  the  explosion,  in  the  case  of  the 
black  powder,  two  rescue  crews,  protected  by  breathing- 
apparatus,  entered  the  open  and  smoking  mouth  of  the 
steel  gallery  to  rescue  the  supposed  victims,  whom  they 
brought  to  the  first-aid  corps  for  treatment  of  afterdamp, 
laceration,  fractures,  and  burns. 

Since  the  national  demonstration  of  mine  -  safety 
methods,  first-aid  teams  and  rescue  corps  have  been  or- 
ganized at  many  mines  where  previously  there  had  been 
no  concerted  effort  in  this  direction;  and  safety  measures 


RESCUE  DRILL  AT  THE  MINES  OF  THE  H.  C.  FRICK  COKE  COMPANY 


RESCUE   CORPS    WITH    DRAEGER    HELMETS    AND   THE    PULMOTOR 


MINES    AND    MINING  169 

in  general  are  being  applied  by  enthusiastic  operators  and 
managers. 

Apart  from  the  deplorable  loss  of  life  in  a  mine  fire, 
there  is  the  property  loss,  both  in  the  actual  expense  of 
fighting  the  fire  and  in  the  injury  to  existing  property, 
when  the  fire  burns  out  timber  supports  and  allows  the 
gangways  to  collapse,  the  veins  to  fault,  and  the  surface 
of  the  ground  to  sink,  with  dislocation  of  structures  on 
the  surface. 

In  cases  of  mines  where  the  air  is  gaseous  from  leakage 
or  distillation  of  hydrocarbon  gases  a  fire  is  easily  started 
from  a  blaze  or  any  source  of  flame.  In  metal  mines, 
which  give  off  no  gas,  the  fire  is  often  started  by  a  com- 
paratively trivial  set  of  conditions.  So  far  as  known, 
the  Cherry  Mine  fire,  for  example,  started  from  a  car-load 
of  hay  for  the  muje  stable.  The  hay  being  ignited  in  the 
midst  of  an  air-current  moving  at  seven  hundred  feet  per 
minute,  the  overhead  timbers,  manway,  and  air  -  shaft 
were  quickly  ablaze. 

The  newer  practice  of  some  of  the  best  mining  com- 
panies involves  the  use  of  steel  timbering  in  place  of  the 
wood  formerly  used,  and  the  development  of  reinforced 
concrete  as  a  building  -  material  for  structures  under 
ground.  Stables,  for  example,  are  made  of  reinforced 
concrete,  and  are  not  only  more  sanitary,  but  are  prac- 
tically non-combustible,  and  in  the  event  of  a  fire  it  can 
be  closely  localized. 

The  Bureau  of  Mines  has  tabulated  the  causes  of  mine 
fires,  in  their  order  of  importance,  as  follows : 

1.  The  ignition  of  timbers,  wooden  stoppings,  and  brattice  cloths. 

2.  The  ignition  of  hay  or  oil-soaked  materials  by  open  torches. 

3.  The  ignition  of  coal  by  blown-out  shots,  or  explosions  of  gassy  air, 
or  coal-dust,  or  from  an  improper  use  of  explosives. 


i7o  SAFETY 

4.  Underground  furnaces  and  boiler-plants. 

5.  Surface  fires  communicated  to  the  mine  through  shaft  or  tunnel. 

6.  Fires  due  to  heat  of  friction  in  haulage-ways. 

7.  Spontaneous  combustion  of  coal  or  greasy  waste. 

Fire-fighting  in  mines  is  further  complicated  by  the 
low  headroom.  It  is  impossible  to  carry  water  very  far 
from  the  nozzle,  because  no  adequate  elevation  can  be 
secured,  even  with  considerable  pressure.  In  a  seven- 
foot  tunnel,  for  example,  under  forty  pounds  pressure  the 
jet  can  only  reach  thirty-four  feet  from  the  man.  Any 
fire  of  consequence  is  too  hot  to  allow  a  man  to  go 
within  this  distance  of  it.  Or,  the  irrespirable  air  pre- 
vents effective  fighting,  unless  the  fighter  dons  an  oxygen 
helmet  or  is  supplied  with  fresh  air  from  behind.  The  hel- 
met must  be  supplemented  with  fire-resistant  garments 
for  the  attack  on  the  fire  to  be  effective.  A  hot  mine  fire 
makes  steam  very  readily;  the  water  passes  into  the  sphe- 
roidal state  on  contact  with  the  incandescent  surface,  and 
does  no  work  of  extinguishing  whatever.  The  treatment 
of  inflammable  material  with  fireproofing  substances  has 
been  an  effective  means  of  checking  fires;  as  also  the 
cutting  off  of  the  flaming  area  and  the  pumping  in  of  car- 
bonic-acid gas,  or  other  non  -  supporter  of  combustion. 
The  piping  of  mines  with  water  under  pressure  for  instant 
use  when  an  accidental  blaze  appears  would  be  an  addi- 
tional safeguard.  The  headworks  should  be  non-combus- 
tible, and  the  possibility  of  a  surface  fire  running  down 
should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible. 

In  mines,  also,  the  same  provision  which  has  been 
found  to  work  so  well  in  other  departments  of  industry 
should  be  carried  out,  whereby  the  miners  have  their  own 
committees  of  safety,  sufficiently  trained  and  experienced 
in  the  dangerous  features  of  the  work  to  maintain  a  con- 


MINES    AND    MINING 


171 


tinuity  of  inspection,  which  the  occasional  visit  of  a  state 
inspector  is  not  able  to  secure.  Such  men  should  be 
familiar  with  the  best  methods  of  using  explosives,  the 
dangers  surrounding  electricity,  the  treatment  of  mine 
gases  and  coal-dust,  methods  of  preventing  and  extinguish- 
ing fires,  rescue  methods,  and  first  aid  to  the  injured  when 
unpreventable  accidents  have  occurred.  They  should  be 
well  up  in  the  methods  of  timbering,  to  prevent  falls  of 


•-     -•'•—•  -r^-.-  • 

"::%^ww^ 


STEEL    SHELTER -HOUSES   FOR   PROTECTION   OF   MEN   DURING   BLASTING 

the  roof.  Such  men  would,  in  fact,  be  special  inspectors 
or  safety  foremen;  and  by  having  the  duty  passed  from 
man  to  man  every  one  of  sufficient  experience  to  do  the 
work  would  share  the  burden  of  responsibility. 

When  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Mines  investigates  the 
methods  of  a  corporation  and  finds  them  so  meritorious 
that  it  adopts  them  for  use  in  its  own  work  of  promoting 
mine  safety,  such  indorsement  of  private  effort  must  be 
highly  gratifying  to  the  officials  of  the  company  so 
honored. 

This  has  been  the  experience  of  the  H.  C.  Prick  Coke 
and  Coal  Company,  whose  measures  for  the  safety  and 
health  of  its  employees  have  been  so  perfected  that  the 


i72  SAFETY 

Bureau  of  Mines  is  recommending  them  for  adoption  by 
operators  all  over  the  country. 

This  company  is  one  of  the  subsidiaries  of  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  and  the  greatest  single  fuel- 
producer  in  the  world.  As  illustrations  of  what  can  be 
accomplished  in  the  fields  of  accident  prevention,  in- 
dustrial hygiene,  and  mutuality  its  achievements  afford 
a  worthy  guide. 

Many  of  this  company's  precautions  against  accidents 
are  not  prescribed  by  law,  but  are  subjects  entirely  of  the 
company's  own  initiation  and  adoption.  It  has,  in  fact, 
anticipated  every  legal  measure  laid  down  by  state  or 
national  government  for  mine  safety,  and  the  mining 
code  of  Pennsylvania  has  been  modeled  largely  after  the 
Frick  regulations. 

Systematic  timbering  is  one  of  the  methods  adopted 
for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  accidents  as  far  as  possible. 
This  is  accomplished  by  having  the  maximum  distance 
four  and  one-half  feet  between  the  posts  or  timbering  in 
a  row,  and  four  and  one-half  feet  between  the  rows  of  posts. 
In  all  room  and  rib  work  this  is  compulsory;  if,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  mine  foreman  or  other  official,  more  timber- 
ing is  required,  it  is  set  at  a  shorter  distance.  In  order  to 
avoid  accidents  in  rib  work,  experienced  men  are  appointed 
as  "rib  bosses  "  to  supervise  the  dangerous  work  of  making 
"falls,"  and  to  see  that  every  precaution  that  prudence 
and  experience  can  suggest  is  taken.  In  this  class  of 
work  a  mechanical  device,  or  "post-puller,"  is  used  to 
draw  posts  where  it  would  be  dangerous  for  men  to 
do  so. 

The  use  of  black  powder  is  strictly  prohibited.  The 
best  permissible  explosive  is  used,  and  a  charge  limit 
of  one  and  a  half  pounds  per  shot  is  maintained.  Shots 


PLATFORM    FOR   LARRY    OPERATOR 


MINE-CAR   AMBULANCE 


OLD    METHOD    OF    UNCOUPLING  LOADED          SAFETY   DEVICE    FOR   UNCOUPLING   CARS 
CARS   AT   SHAFT    BOTTOM  AT   SHAFT   BOTTOM 


MINES    AND   MINING  173 

are  fired  by  electricity,  and  the  charging,  tamping,  and 
firing  are  performed  exclusively  by  specially  designated 
"shot-firers." 

"Safety  First"  is  the  watchword  of  the  company,  con- 
fronting the  workers  at  every  turn  and  in  every  depart- 
ment of  the  great  plant.  Rules  and  regulations  for 
safety,  printed  in  a  dozen  languages,  are  posted  in  every 
conspicuous  place,  calling  attention  to  the  load  limits  in 
pounds  for  cages  and  ropes,  the  proper  way  to  oil  and 
clean  machinery,  warning  against  the  wearing  of  frayed 
or  loose  clothing  while  working  near  moving  machinery, 
warnings  for  men  cleaning  boilers,  working  in  shafts  or 
among  machines.  These  warnings  are  so  placed  that 
they  cannot  fail  to  be  seen.  Finger-boards  are  provided 
throughout  the  mines,  indicating  the  way  out.  Pipe-lines 
carrying  air  at  high  pressure  are  placed  in  bore-holes, 
rather  than  in  shafts,  in  order  to  prevent  possible  acci- 
dents when  men  are  traveling  in  them.  Wooden  guards 
are  placed  along  the  entire  length  of  all  trolley-lines  in 
the  mines,  and  a  whitewashed  strip  is  placed  along  the 
side  of  the  various  haulage  ropes. 

The  Frick  Company  finds  a  lesson  in  every  accident 
that  happens.  Some  time  ago  a  miner  carelessly  walked 
into  a  shaft  mouth  and  lost  his  life.  The  men  who 
devise  ways  and  means  of  preventing  the  recurrence 
of  accidents  immediately  set  to  work  and  evolved  a 
safety  device  that  makes  it  impossible  to  open  the  gate 
to  the  cage  unless  the  cage  is  at  the  surface  landing  of 
the  shaft. 

On  another  occasion  the  man  in  charge  of  one  of  the 
great  hoisting-engines  was  suddenly  overcome  and  lost 
control  of  the  cage,  which  went  over  the  top  of  the  tipple. 
Now  all  the  hoisting-engines  at  shafts  where  men  are 


i74  SAFETY 

hoisted  are  equipped  with  an  automatic  device  to  prevent 
overwinding. 

Another  safeguard  for  the  shaft  is  a  steel  door  which 
may  be  dropped  over  it  in  case  of  fire  or  accident  to  the 
wooden  tipple  and  head-frame. 

The  old  method  of  uncoupling  trains  of  loaded  cars  at 
shaft  bottoms  where  rope  haulages  are  in  use  has  been 
supplanted  by  an  automatic  uncoupling  device,  doing 
away  with  the  dangerous  practice  of  a  man  standing  upon 
the  cable  and  using  both  his  hands  and  his  feet  to  uncouple 
the  car.  Safety  switches  and  derailing  devices  are  to  be 
found  at  the  bottom  of  steep  butts. 

The  lamp-house  is  as  neat  as  a  parlor,  the  checking 
system  so  complete  that  every  man  is  accounted  for  by 
name  as  well  as  by  number.  A  system  of  train  signals  is 


SAFETY  DRAG  FOR  MINE-CARS 


used  in  the  mine,  modeled  after  the  block  system  on  the 
leading  railroads,  and  applies  as  well  to  the  trains  in 
the  yards. 
-     The  larry-operator  has  for  his  protection  a  substantial, 


MINES    AND    MINING  175 

covered  platform,  and  the  trip  cars  for  the  workers  are 
connected  with  safety  chains,  in  addition  to  the  cus- 
tomary center  hitchings. 

Underground  rooms  and  offices  are  of  substantial  sani- 
tary and  fireproof  construction.  Take,  for  instance,  the 
mine  foreman's  underground  office,  which  in  its  height, 
breadth,  ventilation,  and  equipment  is  as  safe  and  com- 
fortable as  an  ordinary  business  office  as  many  feet  above, 
as  it  is  below,  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  under- 
ground haulage  engine-rooms  and  pump-rooms  are  abso- 
lutely fireproof  and  sanitary,  as  are  also  the  stables  where 
hundreds  of  horses  and  mules  are  quartered  from  one 
year's  end  to  another.  A  unique  safety  feature  is  that 
used  in  connection  with  shoeing  the  mine  mules,  which 
greatly  modifies  that  usually  dangerous  operation. 

No  department  of  the  Frick  system  is  better  organized 
and  conducted  than  the  first-aid  and  emergency  work. 
While  the  company  believes  that  the  prevention  of  acci- 
dents is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  alleviation  of  acci- 
dental injuries,  it  does  not  overlook  any  detail  in  the  way 
of  preparation  or  care  for  possible  injuries. 

At  the  rescue  stations  maintained  by  the  company 
thirty-six  corps  of  five  men  each  practise  quarterly,  and 
twice  that  number  of  men  are  fully  trained  and  qualified 
in  rescue  and  first-aid  work.  In  one  year  more  than 
$20,000  was  spent  on  this  feature  of  the  work,  one-half 
of  which  amount  went  as  wages  to  the  men  who  attended 
rescue  practice.  The  men  chosen  for  rescue  work  are 
between  the  ages  of  twenty-five  and  forty-five  years,  and 
each  must  possess  a  doctor's  certificate  showing  that  he 
is  physically  able  to  stand  the  training  and  to  perform 
the  duties  in  connection  with  it.  They  must  be  intelli- 
gent, cool,  prudent,  temperate  men,  able  to  speak  English, 


176  SAFETY 

and  must  have  a  knowledge  of  underground  work.  They 
must  also  know  how  to  read  mine  plans  and  to  trace  the 
course  of  the  ventilating  current.  They  are  drilled  in  the 
use  of  breathing  and  rescue  apparatus,  and  are  taught 
the  properties  and  methods  of  detecting  poisonous  and 
inflammable  gases. 

Each  rescue  corps  elects  its  own  captain,  who  is  usually 
the  coolest  member,  one  in  whom  the  others  have  con- 
fidence and  whom  they  will  obey.  Those  who  are  es- 
pecially trained  in  rescue  work  are  given  certificates  of 
competency. 

The  rescue  stations  are  equipped  with  the  latest  and 
best  breathing-apparatus,  including  the  pulmotor,  oxygen 
tanks,  electric  lamps,  stretchers,  first-aid  cabinets,  with 
all  necessary  supplies,  hot-water  bottles,  army  blankets, 
and  a  library  of  the  best  authorities  on  first-aid  work. 
Each  rescue  station  has  two  telephones,  one  of  which  is 
connected  with  six  other  telephones  in  different  parts  of 
the  mine,  so  that  the  office  may  be  notified  and  a  physician 
secured  before  the  injured  person  is  brought  to  the  sur- 
face. In  addition  to  these  rescue  stations  in  each  mine 
there  are  sub- stations,  also  equipped  with  bandages,  tourni- 
quets, stretchers,  and  other  first-aid  supplies. 

Connected  with  the  rescue  work  is  the  system  of 
emergency  hospitals  which  the  Frick  Company  has 
established  at  its  various  plants  and  which  embody  the 
last  word  in  comfort,  cleanliness,  and  medical  equipment. 
A  hospital-car  is  another  example  of  Frick  preparedness  for 
accidents.  This  is  fitted  up  with  an  operating-room,  and 
is  completely  equipped  with  apparatus  and  supplies  for 
rescue  and  emergency  work.  Although  there  has  never 
been  an  accident  in  the  mines  to  occasion  the  use  of 
this  car,  it  has  been  kept  in  readiness  for  possible  accidents 


WHEN   HOISTING   MEN   FROM   THE    SHAFTS,    THE   OLIVER   MINING  COMPANY 
»          STATION   TWO   MEN   IN   CHARGE 


LEVEL  CONCRETE  PLATFORM  AND  SAFETY  GATES  AT  THE  OLIVER  MINING 
•  COMPANY'S  SHAFT 


MINES    AND    MINING  177 

and  has  been  frequently  loaned,  together  with  a  rescue 
crew,  to  other  companies. 

In  the  matter  of  ventilation  the  rules  of  the  company 
call  for  an  excess  of  at  least  50  per  cent,  in  the  volume  of 
ventilation  to  be  circulated  through  the  working-places 
of  all  its  mines.  The  20'  x  8'  reversible  steel  fans  are 
entirely  fireproof,  and  have  engines  erected  on  either  side, 
so  that  in  the  event  of  the  failure  or  breaking  down  of  one 
engine  the  other  is  capable  of  driving  the  fan. 

All  air-shafts  have  steam  turned  into  them  in  freezing 
weather  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ice. 

Throughout  the  mines  a  system  of  water-lines  is  laid, 
for  the  purpose  of  allaying  dust  by  sprinkling  or  washing 
down  the  ceilings  and  sides  of  galleries  and  headings. 

Within  the  past  two  years  the  H.  C.  Frick  Company  has 
spent  more  than  a  half -million  of  dollars  in  bettering  and 
improving  the  mine  locations,  and  the  homes  and  surround- 
ings of  its  employees.  It  has  practically  rebuilt  the  coal 
and  coke  region  in  which  it  operates. 

This  movement  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  safety 
work  and  from  what  is  technically  known  as  "physical 
development"  of  the  plants.  It  has  been  a  movement  to 
clean  up  the  mining  towns,  and  has  included  the  building 
of  hundreds  upon  hundreds  of  sanitary  and  comfortable 
houses,  and  the  laying  of  many  miles  of  concrete  sidewalks 
and  drains.  Pure  water  is  supplied  through  a  system  of 
mains  connected  with  the  great  plant  reservoirs  and  fire- 
fighting  equipment. 


XII 

ELECTRICITY 

LECTRIC  power-houses  using  currents  of  high  ten- 
sion  are  isolating  the  control  switches  in  a  special 
switch-house  made  of  incombustible  materials.  The 
separate  circuits  are  isolated  from  each  other  and  from 
the  walls  of  the  building,  so  that  convenient  access  can 
be  had  to  them  with  the  least  possible  danger  to  the 
inspector  and  repair  gang.  If  a  separate  house  is  not 
possible,  the  face  of  the  switchboard  should  be  installed 
in  the  engine-room,  the  back  and  feeder  lines  upon  the 
other  side  of  the  wall. 

In  still  smaller  power-plants  and  where  there  is  no 
possibility  of  interposing  a  wall  it  has  been  usual  to  locate 
the  switchboard  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  wall, 
leaving  room  for  circulation  of  air  and  for  any  work  to  be 
done  between  the  plane  of  the  switches  and  the  wall  of 
the  building.  An  interesting  suggestion  for  safeguarding 
switchboards  has  been  brought  out  in  practice  in  Ger- 
many. 

The  Allgemeine  Elektricitaets  Gesellschaft,  of  Berlin, 
make  their  switchboards  in  sections,  which-,  when  all  are 
in  place,  form  a  sort  of  cabinet  against  the  wall.  Each 
section  is  mounted  on  one  side  of  a  frame  supported  upon 
wheels  which  run  in  a  trolley  track.  By  this  construction 
each  section  can  be  moved  forward  beyond  the  plane  of 
the  base  of  the  others,  so  that  any  adjustment,  inspection, 


GUARDS    OVER   ELECTRIC    APPARATUS    IN    GENERATOR-ROOM 


SCREENS   AND   RAILINGS   AROUND   DYNAMO   AND   SWITCHBOARD 
UNITED    STATES    STEEL    CORPORATION 


ELECTRICITY  179 

or  repairs  can  be  made  easily,  safely,  and  in  the  light. 
As  the  frame  is  shoved  back  in  place  the  knife-switches 
are  thrown  in  and  connections  established  with  the  bus- 
bars. Pulling  out  the  frame  disconnects  the  switches 
first  of  all,  so  that  the  operator  is  entirely  safeguarded 
as  long  as  he  keeps  the  section  in  front  of  the  rest  of  the 
cabinet. 

Portable  lamps  should  not  be  installed  except  where 
absolutely  necessary,  and  then  wire  guards  provided  over 
the  lamps  where  there  is  gas  or  other  combustible  ma- 
terial or  where  the  lamp  is  liable  to  explode  or  be 
broken. 

To  protect  electric  workers  from  the  possibility  of  some 
one  else  unwittingly  closing  the  switch,  the  knife -blade 
may  be  drilled  for  a  padlock  which  will  lock  the  knife. 

The  padlock  carries  the  name  of  the  one  locking  the 
switch,  so  that  it  cannot  be  closed  except  by  the  holder  of 
the  key  or  some  one  to  whom  he  may  give  it.  This  is  a 
very  simple  and  inexpensive  device  in  the  case  of  machines 
served  by  the  same  main  feeder  line  and  having  the  same 
control  switch,  making  it  impossible  for  any  one  interest- 
ed in  starting  his  own  machine  below  the  switch  to  close 
it  in  ignorance  of  the  harm  he  may  cause  others. 

It  is  just  as  easy  to  install  switches  so  that  gravity  will 
tend  to  open  rather  than  close  them.  Where  practicable 
they  should  be  mounted  so  that  blades  are  "dead"  when 
the  switch  is  open. 

In  the  cases  of  brushes,  connectors,  terminals,  and  other 
parts  of  high-voltage  dynamos,  motors,  and  transformers, 
they  must  be  boxed  or  so  arranged  that  no  person  can 
accidentally  establish  connection  between  two  parts  at  a 
high  potential  difference  with  his  body,  clothing,  or  con- 
ducting-tool. 

13 


i8o  SAFETY 

Even  telephone  or  signal  wires  may  become  crossed 
with  high-tension  wires  and  dangerously  charged.  Com- 
petent workmen  are  always  watchful  and  careful  for  such 
conditions. 

Intense  pain  results  from  exposure  of  the  delicate  nerves 
of  the  eyes  to  the  intense  light  of  the  electric  arc.  As 
this  pain  does  not  manifest  itself  until  several  hours  after- 
ward, in  case  the  eyes  have  been  exposed  the  workman 
should  immediately  seek  the  advice  of  the  doctor;  but  this 
type  of  injury  can  be  avoided  by  not  looking  at  an  intense 
arc  without  the  protection  of  heavy  blue  or  black  glasses. 

In  welding  by  means  of  the  electric  arc  there  is  more 
or  less  tendency  to  oxidation  and  the  formation  of  cinder. 
The  imprisoned  air  bursting  its  way  out  of  the  contact 
surface  may  cause  as  dangerous  a  missile  as  the  old  cinder 
of  the  hand  process.  In  electric  welding  the  operator's 
eyes  come  very  close  to  the  danger  zone. 

It  is  perfectly  possible  to  protect  the  eyes  of  the  operator 
by  a  mica  plate  mounted  in  a  frame  attached  to  the  upper 
electrode  and  enabling  him  to  watch  his  process  at  the 
critical  moment.  For  the  protection  of  the  passers-by 
a  fine-mesh  wire-gauze  screen  prevents  sparks  from 
flying. 

In  1912  a  normal  method  for  resuscitation  from  electric 
shock  was  formulated  by  a  commission,  representing  the 
American  Medical  Association,  the  National  Electric 
Light  Association,  and  the  American  Institute  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers. 

It  is  planned  that  the  following  rules  prepared  by  the 
commission  should  be  posted  in  some  conspicuous  place 
in  the  shop  or  power-station,  with  space  on  the  chart  for 
the  names  and  addresses,  with  the  telephone  -  calls,  of 
recommended  doctors. 


ELECTRICITY  181 

RESUSCITATION  FROM  ELECTRIC  SHOCK 

FOLLOW    THESE    INSTRUCTIONS     EVEN    IF    VICTIM    APPEARS    DEAD 

I.  Immediately  break  the  circuit. 

With  a  single  quick  motion  free  the  victim  from  the  current. 
Use  any  dry  non-conductor  (clothing,  rope,  board)  to  move  either 
the  victim  or  the  wire.  Beware  of  using  metal  or  any  moist 
material.  While  freeing  the  victim  from  the  live  conductor  have 
every  effort  also  made  to  shut  off  the  current  quickly. 

II.  Instantly  attend  to  the  victim's  breathing. 

1.  As  soon  as  the  victim  is  clear  of  the  conductor,  rapidly  feel 
with  your  finger  in  mouth  and  throat  and  remove  any  foreign 
body  (tobacco,  false  teeth,  etc.).     Then  begin  artificial  respiration 
at  once.     Do  not  stop  to  loosen  the  victim's  clothing;    every 
moment  of  delay  is  serious.     Proceed  as  follows: 

(a)  Lay  the  subject  on  his  belly,  with  arms  extended  as  straight 
forward  as  possible  and  with  face  to  one  side,  so  that  the  nose  and 
mouth  are  free  for  breathing.     Let  an  assistant  draw  forward  the 
subject's  tongue. 

(b)  Kneel  straddling  the  subject's  thighs,  and  facing  his  head; 
rest  the  palms  of  your  hands  on  the  loins  (on  the  muscles  of  the 
small  of  the  back),  with  fingers  spread  over  the  lowest  ribs. 

(c)  With  arms  held  straight,  swing  forward  slowly  so  that  the 
weight  of  your  body  is  gradually  but  not  violently  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  subject.    This  act  should  take  from  two  to  three 
seconds. 

(d)  Then  immediately  swing  backward  so  as  to  remove  the 
pressure,  thus  returning  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  i. 

(e)  Repeat  deliberately  twelve  to  fifteen  times  a  minute  the 
swinging  forward  and  back — a  complete  respiration  in  four  or 
five  seconds. 

(/)  As  soon  as  this  artificial  respiration  has  been  started,  and 
while  it 'is  being  continued,  an  assistant  should  loosen  any  tight 
clothing  about  the  subject's  neck,  chest,  or  waist. 

2.  Continue  the  artificial  respiration  (if  necessary,  two  hours 
or  longer),  without  interruption,  until  natural  breathing  is  re- 
stored, or  until  a  physician  arrives.     If  natural  breathing  stops 
after  being  restored,  use  artificial  respiration  again. 

3.  Do  not  give  any  liquid  by  mouth  until  the  subject  is  fully 
conscious. 

4.  Give  the  subject  fresh  air,  but  keep  him  warm. 

III.  Send  for  nearest  doctor  as  soon  as  accident  is  discovered. 


182  SAFETY 

The  alleged  rule  of  American  industry,  "Product  first, 
safety  afterward, ' '  has  many  notable  exceptions.  Though 
legislative  bodies  until  recent  years  have  proved  somewhat 
indifferent  to  the  lack  of  safety  in  our  industrial  system, 
it  is  gratifying  to  note  the  number  of  private  companies 
which  are  thoroughly  alive  to  the  dangers  attending  elec- 
trical production  and  have  taken  the  initiative  in  safe- 
guarding their  employees. 

Conspicuous  among  these  private  concerns  is  the  New 
York  Edison  Company,  which  has  taken  exceptional 
measures  to  insure  the  safety  and  promote  the  happiness 
of  its  workers. 

The  electrical  industry  has  its  inevitable  risks ;  and,  as 
it  develops,  new  conditions  arise  to  which  the  worker 
must  continually  adapt  himself.  The  production  of 
power  by  means  of  turbo-generators,  for  example,  radi- 
cally changed  the  work  of  the  engineers  who  for  years 
had  handled  the  old  steam-drives.  A  new  element  of 
danger  was  introduced,  to  which  the  engineers  had  to 
accustom  themselves,  and  which  must  exist  until  the 
men  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  new  method  of 
generating  and  distributing  power. 

In  the  progress  of  industry  accidents  are  bound  to 
occur,  as  it  is  hardly  possible  to  design  safety  devices  in 
advance  of  the  mechanisms  which  demand  their  existence. 

The  use  of  unprotected  high-tension  apparatus  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  gravest  dangers  in  the  electrical  industry, 
and  were  it  not  for  the  protective  measures  employed  fa- 
tal accidents  would  be  of  daily  occurrence.  The  Edison 
Company's  provision  for  the  safety  of  over  five  thousand 
employees  is  the  result  of  years  of  experiment  and  effort, 
during  which  it  has  developed  one  of  the  most  extensive 
generating  and  distributing  systems  in  the  world.  At 


ELECTRICITY  183 

the  genera  ting-stations,  where  most  of  the  switching  is 
done,  dangerous  parts  are  so  completely  protected  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  for  an  accident  to  take  place. 
This  system  is  followed  up  by  warning  signals  and  rigid 
regulations  and  rules  for  the  operators. 

Each  of  the  high-tension  switches  controlling  the  gen- 
erators is  installed  in  a  separate  compartment  and  care- 
fully numbered,  so  that  the  number  and  record  of  the 
voltage  are  in  plain  sight  of  the  operator  working  in  the 
compartment.  The  operator,  however,  is  not  allowed  to 
enter  it  unless  it  is  opened  for  him  by  the  responsible 
person  in  charge  of  the  key.  Before  commencing  work 
many  precautions  for  safety  must  be  observed. 

If  alterations  are  to  be  made  in  the  connection  or  loca- 
tion of  high-tension  apparatus,  or  additions  made  to  it, 
a  sketch  of  the  proposed  changes  must  be  furnished  the 
system-operator  before  the  work  is  scheduled  to  begin. 
The  foreman  of  the  electrical-construction  department,  or 
the  employee  he  delegates  to  do  the  work,  must  make  sure 
from  the  regulator  in  charge  of  the  switchboard  in  the 
station  where  the  work  is  to  be  done  that  the  cable,  bus, 
or  switch  is  not  connected  with  any  source  of  high  po- 
tential, and  also  that  it  has  been  discharged  to  the 
ground  since  it  last  carried  high-tension  current.  The 
regulator  must  then  notify  the  system-operator  that  the 
construction  department  is  prepared  to  go  ahead  with 
the  work  as  shown  in  the  sketch. 

Upon  word  from  the  operator  the  regulator  blocks 
switches  and  connects  all  conductors  to  ground  and  to 
each  other  by  means  of  the  grounding  and  short-cir- 
cuiting device  provided  for  that  purpose.  The  foreman 
of  the  electrical-construction  department  personally  in- 
spects this  work  and  places  a  "Not  Clear"  card  on  the 


i84  SAFETY 

apparatus.  When  this  has  been  done  a  note  to  this  effect 
is  made  in  the  high-tension  log-book,  and  the  apparatus 
is  inspected.  When  it  is  pronounced  ready  for  use  the 
regulator  notifies  the  system-operator,  and  on  receiving 
instructions  from  him  removes  the  grounding  and  short- 
circuiting  device,  switch-blocks,  and  "Not  Clear"  cards, 
and  notes  the  operation  in  the  log-book. 

The  same  precautions  are  taken  in  all  work  on  high- 
tension  apparatus.  All  live  parts  are  kept  under  lock 
and  key,  and  the  apparatus  is  so  protected  that  the  men 
cannot  remove  any  part  of  it.  All  cables  are  insulated, 
and  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  when  they  are  cut. 

The  popular  notion  about  the  danger  connected  with 
electrical  current  is  that  any  contact  with  a  highly 
charged  conductor  must  necessarily  result  in  serious  in- 
jury. The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that  the  current  becomes 
dangerous  from  the  characteristic  of  high  voltage;  but  if 
there  is  adequate  protection  against  the  passage  of  the 
current  through  the  body  it  is  harmless.  If  the  work- 
man's shoes  are  dry,  and  insulation  is  provided  by  dry 
rubber  or  wooden  flooring,  or  a  rubber  mat,  a  connection 
with  a  return  conductor  is  prevented  and  the  man  is 
safe. 

All  rotary  converters  in  the  Edison  Company's  stations 
are  provided  with  hand-rails  and  rubber  mats.  Em- 
ployees who  handle  dangerous  apparatus  are  provided 
with  linemen's  rubber  gloves,  which  have  been  previously 
subjected  to  a  test  of  ten  thousand  volts. 

In  both  generating-stations  and  sub-stations  all  dan- 
gerous apparatus  is  marked  and  the  voltage  conspicu- 
ously indicated.  There  is  also  in  force  a  regular  system 
of  inspection  by  responsible  men  whose  duty  is  to  report 
immediately  any  fault  in  any  part  of  transmission  or 


y      ELECTRICITY  185 

transforming  system.  Such  inspection  determines  where 
accidents  might  occur,  and  the  possibility  of  danger  is 
at  once  removed. 

Upon  his  acceptance  for  employment  by  the  company, 
each  operator  is  given  a  book  of  "Rules  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  Employees  Operating  and  Handling  High- 
Tension  Apparatus."  Each  rule-book  is  numbered,  and 
the  operator  signing  for  it  is  expected  to  become  familiar 
with  its  contents. 

Under  these  conditions  accidents  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  as  this  company's  statistics  bear  witness. 

Not  the  least  among  the  safety  precautions  taken  in 
the  generating-stations  should  be  mentioned  a  complete 
system  of  labor-saving  appliances,  in  consideration  of  the 
fact  that  a  man  tired  out  by  the  strenuous  exertion  of 
handling  coal  or  ash  is  far  more  liable  to  danger  in  moving 
about  among  operating-machines  than  a  man  whose 
vigor  has  not  been  exhausted. 

From  this  point  of  view  one  of  the  most  important  labor- 
savers  is  the  automatic  stoker.  To-day  all  the  boilers 
in  operation — to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen — 
are  equipped  with  the  automatic  device. 

For  the  disposal  of  ash  an  electric  railway  runs  under 
the  hoppers,  which  discharge  at  the  pressure  of  a  valve 
into  the  cars  beneath.  The  ash  is  then  run  out  onto  the 
dock  and  dumped  by  a  skip-hoist  into  a  storage  bin,  from 
which  it  is  shot  into  scows  and  carried  down  the  harbor. 

The  old  method  of  blowing  out  of  boiler  parts  has  been 
abandoned  and  compressed-air  apparatus  substituted. 
A  pipe-line  now  runs  throughout  the  stations  to  which  a 
hose  can  be  attached  at  any  desired  point.  The  relief 
afforded  by  this  method  can  readily  be  appreciated  by 
those  who  have  had  experience  in  power  production. 


1 86  SAFETY 

'Under  the  head  of  prevention  come  the  prompt  treat- 
ment of  those  who  occasionally  suffer  injury,  notwith- 
standing elaborate  precautions  for  safety,  an  admirable 
system  of  accident  reports,  financial  aid  for  those  in- 
capacitated through  injuries,  and,  in  the  event  of  death, 
aid  for  their  dependents. 

The  greatest  number  of  accidents  which  do  occur  are 
slight  injuries  which,  with  proper  care,  are  successfully 
treated;  but  without  such  care  they  might  result  in 
death  or  permanent  disablement. 

The  company  retains  two  of  the  best  physicians  in  the 
country  who  are  specialists  in  injuries  incident  to  the 
electrical  industry.  Lectures  are  given  by  these  physi- 
cians, under  the  auspices  of  the  company's  Association  of 
Employees,  on  the  resuscitation  from  electrical  shock  and 
allied  topics.  In  this  way  the  workers  are  prepared  in 
case  of  accident  to  give  valuable  aid  pending  the  arrival 
of  the  doctor.  One  of  these  physicians,  Dr.  John  Wood- 
man, has  prepared  for  the  benefit  of  the  men  a  most 
valuable  little  book  on  First  Aid  to  the  Injured. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  prime  essentials  for  the  pre- 
vention of  accidents  is  complete  and  accurate  information 
about  the  accidents  that  have  happened,  how  each  acci- 
dent occurred,  what  machinery  was  involved,  the  work- 
ing-hours, and  other  details.  It  is  considered  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  get  every  fact  that  will  throw  light 
on  such  accidents  with  a  view  to  preventing  their  re- 
currence. 

When  an  employee  is  injured  he  is  treated  at  the 
medical  cabinet  if  the  injury  is  slight,  otherwise  he  is 
immediately  sent  to  the  company's  physician,  who 
examines  and  treats  him.  The  physician  then  makes  a 
report,  recommending  that  the  patient  be  put  .on  "full 


ELECTRICITY  187 

duty,"  "partial  duty,"  or  "off  duty."  A  return  to 
"partial  duty"  means  that  the  man  is  permitted  to  do 
light  work  only,  and  is  adopted  more  through  considera- 
tion of  its  moral  effect  upon  the  employee  than  for  any 
benefit  the  company  may  derive  from  his  labor.  Some 
easy  occupation  serves  to  divert  his  mind  and  acts  as  a 
stimulus  to  recovery. 

The  foreman  and  the  physician  both  make  out  detailed 
reports  of  the  accident — the  hour,  place,  nature  of  the 
accident,  its  liability,  whether  due  to  the  carelessness  of 
the  employee  or  one  of  his  fellows  or  to  some  outside 
cause.  The  doctor's  report  contains  one  of  the  anatom- 
ical stamps  which  the  company  has  prepared,  showing  all 
parts  of  the  body  and  having  marked  on  it  in  ink  the 
exact  location  of  the  injury. 

The  reports  of  the  doctor  and  the  foreman  are  then 
forwarded  to  the  Bureau  of  Claims. 

During  the  operation  of  this  plan  the  company  has 
gathered  valuable  statistics  on  the  nature  and  cause  of 
accidents.  The  figures  show  that  the  majority  of  the  * 
accidents  are  of  a  trivial  nature.  For  example,  of  those 
that  occurred  during  1912  -more  than  one-half  resulted 
in  no  loss  of  time.  During  the  same  period  there  were 
no  deaths.  • 

Eighty-seven  and  four-tenths  per  cent,  were  due  to  the 
carelessness  of  employees,  and  only  ii.n  per  cent,  were 
due  to  electrical  causes.  The  most  frequent  cause  is 
designated  by  the  heading  "struck  by  material,"  includ- 
ing all  minor  injuries,  many  of  which  amounted  to  but 
slight  abrasions  of  the  skin.  Next  in  order  of  frequency 
come  short-circuit  burns,  material  in  the  eyes,  cuts, 
sprains,  and  falls. 

The  treatment  of  minor  injuries  calls  for  no  small     * 


i88  SAFETY 

amount  of  discretion.  If  all  minor  cases  were  sent  to  the 
doctor  the  loss  of  time  would  be  considerable.  On  the 
other  hand,  minor  injuries  cannot  be  neglected,  as  they 
might  result  in  serious  trouble.  In  such  cases  the  medical 
cabinet  proves  its  usefulness  and  importance. 

There  is  a  regrettable  tendency  on  the  part  of  employees 
to  conceal  minor  injuries,  and  also  a  carelessness  in  com- 
plying with  the  safety  regulations  that  are  posted  by  the 
company,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  methods  it  is  employ- 
ing will  finally  bring  forth  the  heartiest  co-operation  of  all 
its  employees. 

Under  the  head  of  prevention  may  also  be  included  the 
financial  assistance  rendered  by  the  company  to  its  in- 
jured employees.  The  workman,  on  his  first  visit  to  the 
physician,  takes  with  him  a  card  signed  by  his  foreman 
"which  entitles  him,  regardless  of  the  responsibility  for 
the  accident,  to  free  medical  aid  during  the  period  of  his 
disability."  He  is  then  given  an  opportunity  to  sign  a 
release  "wherein  he  waives  all  claim  against  the  company 
in  consideration  of  such  free  medical  care."  The  com- 
pany believes  that  the  cost  of  all  such  accidents  "should 
fall,  not  upon  the  individual  or  his  dependents,  but  upon 
the  industry  as  a  whole." 

The  injured  workman  is  immediately  put-  upon  what  is 
known  as  the  "disability  pay-roll,"  and  is  paid,  in  propor- 
tion to  his  disability,  full,  half,  or  quarter  wages.  In  the 
event  of  death  his  widow  or  dependents  receive  a  sum 
equivalent  to  the  amount  to  which  he  would  have  been 
entitled  in  case  of  total  disability. 

That  the  compensation  policy  of  the  company  has 
proved  fair  and  wise  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  of  all 
the  accidents  which  took  place  from  1903  to  1907  only 
six  employees  refused  to  sign  the  release  and  sued  the 


ELECTRICITY  189 

company;  five  were  unsuccessful,  the  cases  being  dis- 
missed upon  their  merits;  the  sixth  was  adjusted  out  of 
court.  In  the  case  of  fatal  accidents,  which  are  exceed- 
ingly rare,  all  mortuary  expenses  are  borne  by  the  com- 
pany, and  a  special  appropriation  is  made  for  the  family 
of  the  deceased. 

The  management  is  fully  awake  to  the  significance  of 
education  as  a  safeguard  against  accidents.  Not  only 
is  technical  skill  desirable,  but  education  that  will  develop 
mental  alertness,  accuracy  of  judgment,  and  a  genuine 
and  lively  interest  in  the  company.  The  deficiencies  of 
human  nature  must  be  reckoned  with,  and  the  mentality 
of  men  trained  to  meet  not  only  emergencies,  but  the 
inevitable  risks  incident  to  daily  routine.  Education 
is  imperative  for  bringing  the  workman  to  a  clearer 
appreciation  of  life  and  its  responsibilities  and  in  making 
him  more  alert  to  the  opportunities  and  dangers  of  his 
profession. 

In  its  school  for  employees  the  Edison  Company  not 
only  provides  classes  affording  a  comprehensive  technical 
knowledge  of  the  industry,  but  also  gives  the  men  an  op- 
portunity to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  commercial 
aspect  of  the  company's  affairs.  The  school  has  been 
so  planned  that,  without  cost,  the  employee  may  re- 
ceive laboratory  instruction  in  electrical  science  from  the 
elementary  principles  to  the  most  advanced  application. 
Night  courses  have  been  arranged  for  the  day  workers, 
and  day  courses  for  the  night  workers.  In  this  way  any 
man  who  enters  the  company  without  technical  training 
but  who  has  an  ambition  to  become  proficient  along  his 
chosen  line  may  acquire  proficiency  by  his  own  effort.  He 
is  also  given  courses  in  salesmanship  and  lectures  on  acci- 
dent prevention  and  hygiene. 


igo  SAFETY 

This  school  is  unique  in  that  its  work  is  done  entirely 
on  the  company's  time  and  is  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
company's  work.  No  employee  who  comes  in  contact 
with  the  public  is  without  instruction  along  the  lines  of 
courtesy  and  helpfulness.  His  work  in  the  school  is 
graded,  and  the  results  are  considered  in  the  matter  of 
promotion. 

In  every  way  the  New  York  Edison  Company  seeks  to 
prevent  accidents  and  to  discharge  its  responsibility,  not 
only  as  employer  to  employee,  but  also  as  public  servant 
to  a  community  which  is  warranted  in  expecting  a  high 
degree  of  efficient  service. 


XIII 

GENERAL   AIDS   TO    SAFETY 

TN  a  discussion  of  safety  it  will  be  of  service  to  re- 
1  capitulate  briefly  the  causes  of  industrial  accidents: 

Again  we  are  forced  to  turn  to  German  experience  for 
accurate  statistical  information,  this  time  to  the  annual 
report  for  1911  of  the  North  German  Iron  and  Steel 
Association,  including  7,853  industrialists,  and  employing 
138,927  insured  workmen.  The  wages  were  168,338,234 
marks. 

The  total  number  of  accidents  for  which  compensation 
was  paid  was  1,311.  Of  these  54  were  fatal,  15  totally 
incapacitated,  911  partially  incapacitated,  and  332  slight- 
ly incapacitated. 

One  hundred  and  sixty-seven  accidents  were  caused  by 
collapses  and  falls;  159  by  falls  from  ladders,  stairways, 
roofs,  and  openings;  178  in  loading,  unloading,  and  carry- 
ing material;  426  by  motors,  transmission,  and  power- 
machines. 

Of  the  1,311  accidents,  60  concerned  the  head  and 
face;  159  the  eyes;  595  the  arms  and  hands;  332  the 
feet  and  legs;  81  other  parts  of  the  body;  50  were  in- 
ternal injuries.  Responsibility  for  these  accidents  was 
divided  as  follows: 

Fault  of  a  fellow-workman  or  outsider 33 

Personal  carelessness  or  -carelessness  of  fellow-workman  484 
Insufficient  care  in  installation,  lack  of  safety  appli- 
ances, lack  of  warning  notices 46 


SAFETY 

Not  using  safety  appliances,  disobeying  notices 37 

Combination  of  causes — i.  e.,  faulty  installation  with 
carelessness  of  workmen,  neglecting  safety  precautions 

with  carelessness  in  handling,  etc 18 

Pure  accidents  and  unknown  causes .  .• 693 


There  are  four  groups  of  interests  involved  in  industrial 
accidents:  the  workmen,  the  employer,  the  community, 
and  the  people  at  large. 

The  last  are  involved  as  sufferers,  almost  exclusively, 
in  accidents  occurring  in  transportation,  and  may  be 
ignored  in  dealing  with  accidents  in  manufacturing 
operations. 

The  community  is  involved,  because  it  is  very  often 
called  upon  to  care  for  those  whose  means  of  livelihood 
have  been  impaired  or  entirely  cut  off.  Economists 
claim  that  this  is  imposing  upon  the  community  a  bur- 
den which  should  be  borne  by  the  industry. 

Modern  industry,  in  its  complication  and  speed,  has 
introduced  many  elements  of  danger  not  formerly  exist- 
ing. The  manufacturer,  with  many  matters  before  him 
requiring  closest  concern  and  thought,  can  personally 
give  little  attention  to  questions  of  mechanical  safety. 
Until  the  inevitable  industrial  accident  occurs  among  his 
own  people  the  subject- is  not  brought  home  to  him. 

The  workman  is  probably  the  greatest  sufferer,  con- 
sidering his  means;  and  this  has  led  public  opinion,  as 
expressed  by  legislative  bodies,  to  seek  relief  along  the 
line  of  least  resistance — that  of  compelling  the  employ- 
er, usually  possessing  responsibility,  to  carry  the  whole 
load. 

Many  accidents  are  brought  about  by  resistance  to 
reasonable  discipline,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Ameri- 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     193 

can  workman.  For  accidents  resulting  from  carelessness, 
recklessness,  or  disobedience,  of  course,  the  workman  alone 
is  at  fault,  though  the  employer  is  often  forced  to  shoulder 
the  blame. 

Another  class  of  accidents  is  due  to  ignorance.  These 
more  often  befall  the  unskilled  worker  who  enters  upon 
his  industrial  life  without  a  knowledge  of  the  risks  he  is 
to  encounter. 

A  large  group  of  accidents,  under  present  circumstances 
in  this  country,  is  due  to  the  inherent  risks  of  the  in- 
dustry, the  accidents  which  no  foresight  or  care  on  the 
part  of  the  employer  or  the  workmen  could  prevent. 
These  should  be  made  a  direct  charge  upon  the  industry, 
in  which  the  consumer  ought  to  be  made  to  share,  for  it 
is  possible  to  add  a  part  or  the  whole  cost  of  the  accident 
to  the  price  of  the  product. 

Still  another  group  of  accidents  is  that  for  which  the 
employer  is  squarely  responsible,  because  he  does  not 
provide  the  necessary  safeguards,  or  because  he  neglects 
opportunities  fairly  within  his  reach  to  educate  the  igno- 
rant, to  restrain  the  reckless,  or  to  secure  the  active  co- 
operation of  the  intelligent  and  well-disposed. 

It  is  not  enough  to  spend  money  and  exercise  ingenuity 
in  equipping  a  plant  with  safety  devices  and  in  seeing 
that  they  are  kept  in  efficient  condition.  It  is  not  enough 
to  draw  up  sharp  rules  and  see  that  they  are  obeyed. 
There  should  be  developed  systematically  throughout 
the  organization  a  spirit  of  co-operation  for  the  safety  of 
the  entire  industry. 

Until  such  time  as  the  consideration  of  safety  becomes  of 
as  great  importance  as  questions  of  producing,  selling  and 
advertising;  until  it  becomes  a  part  of  a  plant's  industrial 
policy — until  this  point  has  been  reached,  the  American 


194  SAFETY 

industrialist  will  not  have  done  all  in  his  power  to  protect 
his  industrial  army,  who  are  intrusting  their  lives  and  limbs 
to  his  keeping  during  the  working  period  of  every  day. 

To  head  off  unjust  legislation  it  behooves  our  manu- 
facturers to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  suffering  due  to 
accidents  and  the  inherent  risks  of  occupation,  which  in 
themselves  constitute  a  serious  burden  upon  employers 
and  employees. 

It  would  seem  that  to  be  successful  to-morrow  our  in- 
dustrialists must  put  their  house  in  order;  they  must 
cut  the  ground  from  under  a  movement  which  is  dan- 
gerous, because  there  is  some  justification  for  it;  they 
must  come  into  the  forum  of  public  opinion  with  clean 
hands.  The  most  effective  means  of  meeting  such  a 
movement,  which  may  become  dangerous  through  pos- 
sibly uninformed  activity,  is  to  remove  the  cause  for  just 
complaint  and  criticism. 

A  few  years  ago  the  advocacy  of  safety  devices,  greater 
caution,  and  the  protection  of  human  life  was  considered 
visionary;  but  there  has  been  an  awakening  to  the  im- 
portance of  this  great  subject.  It  is  a  duty  to  surround 
with  every  possible  safeguard  the  toiler  who  makes  the 
wealth  of  the  nation,  and  to  protect  his  life  and  health 
while  at  work. 

What,  then,  are  the  causes  of  industrial  accidents? 
There  are  two  great  classes,  which,  combined,  make  a 
third.  The  two  grand  divisions  of  accidents  are:  Those 
affecting  the  machine  or  mechanical  elements  of  the  plant, 
causing  injury,  necessitating  repairs,  and  stopping  pro- 
duction; and  those  touching  the  human  factor  without 
accident  to  the  mechanical  part.  The  combination,  or 
third  class,  is  composed  of  accidents  affecting  both  the 
machine  and  the  operator. 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     195 

The  suggestion  was  offered  by  an  experienced  shop 
manager  that  the  designer  should  not  attempt  to  make  a 
tool  absolutely  " fool-proof."  He  should  be  satisfied  to 
make  it  safe.  This  distinction  means  that  to  surround 
the  tool  so  completely  with  mechanical  safeguards  that 
the  man  who  uses  it  is  tempted  to  grow  careless  and  fool- 
hardy because  the  designer  has  overdone  his  legitimate 
duty  is  to  do  an  injury  to  the  operative. 
i  A  man  who  is  set  to  work  in  the  control  of  great  power 
at  his  tool  or  work  should  not  be  encouraged  or  allowed  to 
forget  how  great  is  the  power  with  which  he  is  dealing,  nor 
his  responsibility  in  directing  it.  Sleepy  or  inert  direc- 
tion never  produces  as  good  work  as  the  hands  directed 
by  an  alert,  watchful  brain.  The  over-safeguarded  tool 
may  save  some  b'odies  of  low  value,  but  it  does  not  en- 
courage and  foster  the  development  of  a  brain  of  high 
value. 

The  human  factor  is  uncertain.  For  example,  the 
greatest  number  of  accidents  have  been  found  to  take 
place  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  or  on  first  coming 
to  work.  German  statistics  show  that  the  product  of 
labor  is  20  to  25  per  cent,  less  on  Mondays  than  on  other 
days,  and  that  on  Mondays  and  Saturdays  by  far  the 
greatest  number  of  accidents  occur.  This  is  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  delayed  process  of  waking  in  the  brain, 
the  poor  quality  of  the  first  meal  in  the  morning,  and  the 
results  of  the  previous  night's  excesses. 

The  next  worst  hours  of  the  day  are  toward  quitting- 
time,  when  the  men  are  tired,  indifferent,  and  have  become 
careless  through  their  impatience  to  be  off. 

A  fruitful  source  of  accidents  is  bravado.  This  has  been 
cleverly  called  "the  exaggerated  ego,"  which  in  a  man 
might  be  taken  to  mean  that  he  considers  himself  superior 

14 


SAFETY 


to  the  dangers  which  menace  the  ordinary  person,  and  that 
his  superiority  in  quickness,  skill,  or  other  endowments 
renders  him  immune  from  accidents.  This  frame  of 
mind  makes  him  impatient  of  safeguards.  It  induces 
him  to  take  risks,  showing  that  he  is  not  brave,  but  fool- 
hardy. It  results  also 
in  drawing  innocent 
comrades  into  catas- 
trophes precipitated 
by  the  risk-taker. 

Another  source  of 
danger  is  unsuitable 
clothing.  Some  inter- 
esting advances  have 
recently  been  made  in 
shop  rules  which  com- 
pel men  to  wear  short- 
sleeved  jumpers  in- 
stead of  rolling  the 
sleeve  up  above  the 
elbow  to  leave  the  arm 
free.  Women  also  are 
liable  to  accident  in 
wearing  clothing  ill 
adapted  to  their  work. 
Women  operatives 
should  not  be  permit- 
ted to  wear  their  hair 
in  hanging  braids  or 
in  loose,  untidy  masses,  'as  this  has  many  times  proved 
a  source  of  painful  accidents. 

In  silk  and  cotton  mills  overspeeding  of  the  machinery 
is  the  most  common  cause  of  accidents  to  workers.     Per- 


SUITABLE  CLOTHING  FOR  WOMAN  OPERATOR 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     197 

haps  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  danger  in  any  fac- 
tory or  shop  where  power  is  used  to  run  machines  is 
the  oiling  and  cleaning  of  the  working  parts  while  in 
motion. 

-  Textile  machinery,  properly  guarded,  has  little  danger 
for  the  worker.  The  worst,  however,  is  from  over- 
crowding. Very  often  not  enough  space  is  allowed  be- 
tween machines,  making  the  aisles  too  narrow.  The 
aisles  may  be  made  safe  by  proper  guarding  of  the  ends  of 
the  machines,  but  often  more  space  should  be  allowed 
between  machines. 

Dangerous  conditions  arise  in  the  erection,  construc- 
tion, painting,  alteration,  or  repair  of  buildings  or 
bridges.  The  mechanical  force  here  to  be  treated  is 
the  force  of  gravity.  A  man,  taken  unawares,  falling 
from  an  elevation  is  reasonably  certain  to  be  severely 
injured. 

In  this  same  class  will  also  be  found  the  operation  of 
elevators,  hoisting-apparatus,  derricks,  or  lifting-machin- 
ery of  any  kind  within  or  outside  any  structure  in  process 
of  erection.  The  dangers  here  are  from  the  fall  of  ma- 
terial from  a  height,  due  to  the  failure  of  any  part  of  the 
hoisting-machinery. 

The  trades  incident  to  the  erection  or  demolition  of 
structures  in  which  there  is  iron  and  steel  framework 
include  the  dangers  mentioned  above  as  well  as  the 
dangers  attaching  to  great  elevation  and  consequent 
exposure  to  wind  pressure.  The  masses  to  be  handled 
are  usually  great, 'and  their  momentum  may  throw  a  man 
to  his  death  without  any  mechanical  failure  or  any  fault 
or  carelessness  of  the  worker. 

The  construction,  operation,  alteration,  or  repair  of  ap- 
paratus charged  with  electrical  energy  is  very  hazardous. 


SAFETY 


Such  apparatus  includes  not  only  wires,  cables,  third-rails, 
but  also  switchboards  and  similar  controlling  devices. 

An  interesting  experi- 
ence in  connection  with 
the  dangers  of  electrical 
apparatus  is  that  of  a 
certain  great  company 
engaged  exclusively  in 
the  manufacture  and 
distribution  of  electric 
current. 

This  company  found 
after  careful  tabulation 
that  only  13  per  cent, 
of  the  total  number  of 
its  accidents  during  a 
given  period  were  from 
causes  purely  electrical. 
The  causes  of  accidents, 
according  to  their  number,  were  as  follows: 


SAFETY   HOOK  FOR   HOISTS 


k 


Falls  from  ladders  and  scaffolds;    falls  on  the  level 

Hurt  while  moving  material 

Struck  by  material 

Foreign  substance  in  eye 

Hurt  at  ash  and  coal  handling  apparatus 

Steam  and  hot-water  burns 

Acid  and  solder  burns 

Machinery  accidents 

Tool  accidents 

Cuts  and  punctured  wounds 

Sprains,  strains,  etc. 

Short  circuits 

In  doing  the  world's  work  the  first  requisite  is  physical 
and  mental  fitness;  the  employer  must  have  those  em- 
ployees who  can  stand  up  under  the  wear  and  tear  of 


GENERAL    AIDS    TO    SAFETY  199 

production.  If  the  business  involves  lifting  or  carry- 
ing heavy  loads  an  employee  with  a  weak  heart  is  a 
hindrance;  if  the  work  entails  the  inhaling  of  irritating 
dusts  and  fumes,  the  flat,  narrow-chested  worker  pos- 
sibly affected  by  catarrhal  and  bronchial  troubles  is 
passed  by. 

"My  employment  bureau  with  its  medical  staff  for 
physical  examination  of  all  applicants  for  work  is  one  of 
the  best  time  and  labor  saving  devices  I  have,"  declared 
a  certain  employer.  "I  sometimes  call  it  my  screen  or 
sifter  for  separating  the  fit  from  the  unfit.  If  I  appear 
hard  in  turning  away  an  unfit  I  have  always  in  mind 
my  present  staff  already  engaged.  The  workman  must 
realize  that  his  arms  and  legs,  with  a  certain  amount  of 
directing  intelligence,  are  his  only  stock  in  trade,  his  only 
working  capital,  which  he  cannot  afford  to  risk  through  the 
choice  of  a  wrong  vocation." 

Certain  retail  trades  require  constant  standing  and 
long  hours  of  labor;  when  the  working-place  is  damp  or 
insufficiently  heated,  chills,  colds,  bronchial  troubles,  and 
rheumatism  may  be  expected,  with  a  corresponding 
decrease  in  the  efficiency  of  the  worker. 

In  trades  requiring  close  application,  accurate  measure- 
ments, and  fine  care,  poor  or  impaired  eyesight  seriously 
interferes  with  proper  efficiency. 

From  the  workman's  point  of  view  his  body  is  a  ma- 
chine or  tool  which  furnishes  him  a  livelihood.  Whatever 
affects  injuriously  this  machine  lessens  the  number  of 
dollars  it  can  produce.  Inasmuch  as  there  is  a  direct 
connection  between  the  number  of  dollars  earned  by  the 
worker  and  by  the  man  for  whom  he  works,  the  importance 
of  clean  living,  education,  and  physical  fitness  for  the  work 
required  on  the  part  of  the  employee  is  of  as  much  im- 


200  SAFETY 

portance  from  the  employer's  standpoint  as  from  that  of 
the  worker  himself. 

Because  the  wage-earning  capacity  of  the  majority  of 
laborers  is  not  enough  to  enable  them  to  provide  for 
the  emergencies  of  accident,  disease,  or  old  age,  a  thrift  or 
mutual  benefit  association  is  an  aid  to  safety  in  that  it 
tends  to  make  its  members  more  careful,  that  they  may 
not  be  compelled  to  draw  upon  their  savings  fund. 

The  wording  of  factory  legislation  in  nearly  all  states 
insists  that  "proper  safeguards"  shall  be  installed  in 
factories  where  dangerous  machinery  is  in  operation 
"when  deemed  necessary"  by  the  factory  inspectors.  In 
those  states  in  which  the  judgment  on  damages  from  a 
factory  accident  is  left  to  the  decision  of  the  courts  it 
must  necessarily  be  that  the  charge  of  the  judge  centers 
upon  a  definition  of  the  word  "proper." 

In  one  shop  there  may  have  been  a  series  of  accidents 
which  have  emphasized  to  the  owner  the  necessity  of 
safeguarding  certain  machines  or  danger  zones  in  the 
plant  and  he  has  become  insistent  on  the  protection  of 
these  points.  In  another  shop  immunity  may  have  been 
from  that  particular  class  of  accident,  and  consequently 
the  dangers  in  this  class  of  machinery  seem  less  impor- 
tant. Workmen  pass  frequently  from  shop  to  shop  and 
when  they  find  differences  of  opinion  among  employers, 
superintendents,  and  foremen  they  experience  confusion 
of  mind  and  a  resulting  carelessness  of  attitude  toward 
any  measures  for  accident  prevention. 

Standardization  of  safety  devices,  either  by  law  or  by 
agreement,  would  be  of  advantage  to  the  employer  who 
feels  that  his  duty  as  well  as  his  interests  point  toward 
paying  more  attention  to  the  problem  of  safety. 

Present  relations  between  employer  and  underwriter 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     201 

require  standardization.  If  a  factory  inspector  of  the 
state  has  passed  a  plant  as  adequately  safeguarded,  it 
takes  courage  in  the  insurance  inspector  to  express  a 
different  opinion.  If  he  is  too  emphatic  he  loses  the 
business.  In  the  same  way  the  factory  inspector  hesi- 
tates to  antagonize  the  opinion  of  the  insurance  inspector 
who  had  money  at  stake,  by  saying  that  the  plant  which 
he  has  underwritten  is  inadequately  protected. 

The  factory  inspectors  of  the  state  are  in  a  position 
to  establish  the  standards  for  safety  devices  to  be  ap- 
plied to  machines.  Such  standards,  however,  can  be 
effective  only  in  the  state  which  adopts  them.  Some 
standard  broader  than  that  of  one  state  is  needed  — 
one  which  shall  be  accepted  by  all  states  and  by  the 
manufacturing  community  of  the  country  at  large.  This 
puts  the  problem  on  a  plane  higher  than  that  which 
factory  inspectors  can  command.  The  problem  of  stand- 
ardizing shop  rules  is  in  the  same  field  so  far  as  the 
printed  and  published  rules  are  concerned.  There  is, 
however,  an  atmosphere  favorable  to  securing  safety 
which  set  factory  rules  cannot  secure,  because  when  set 
forms  are  used  they  often  tend  to  produce  a  frame  of  mind 
which  considers  that  verbal  compliance  with  the  rules 
is  all  that  is  necessary.  Thus  a  spirit  of  good- will  toward 
safety  is  not  necessarily  fostered. 

A  museum  of  safety  would  seem  to  be  the  organization 
best  fitted  to  undertake  such  work  of  standardization 
and  to  secure  effective  co-operation.  Such  an  institution 
at  which  safety  devices  may  be  exhibited  in  competition, 
in  order  to  receive  the  criticism  of  all  interested,  has  a 
directness  of  access  to  the  employer  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  the  employee  on  the  other,  such  as  no  legislative 
body,  technical  society,  or  other  body  can  secure. 


202  SAFETY 

The  opportunity  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  purchasing- 
agent  to  secure  safety  in  the  plant  should  not  be  over- 
looked. In  one  important  company  the  stimulus  takes 
the  form  of  a  rubber  stamp  impressed  upon  every  letter 
from  the  purchasing-agent  in  regard  to  the  purchase  of 
new  materials  or  machines: 

PROVISIONS  FOR  SAFEGUARDING  WORKMEN  SHOULD 
BE  BROUGHT  TO  OUR  ATTENTION,  AS  WE  WILL 
CONSIDER  THEM  IN  SELECTING  NEW  MACHINERY 
AND  EQUIPMENT. 

This  stimulates  safety  at  the  fountain-head,  in  the 
drafting-room  of  the  manufacturer.  It  is  plain  that  a 
completely  safeguarded  tool  which  would  protect  the 
workers  from  all  accidents  whatever  could  well  be  paid  for 
at  a  higher  price  than  another  machine  which  drew  in  its 
wake  costly  compensations  or  lawsuits. 

A  purchasing-agent  whose  work  lies  in  the  state  of 
New  York  makes  the  following  note  a  part  of  the  order 
and  contract : 

"This  order  for  machinery  is  accepted  with  the  under- 
standing that  it  will  in  all  requirements  comply  with  the 
New  York  State  laws  as  laid  down  for  the  preservation 
of  life  and  limb,  and  of  machine-operators,  or  any  persons 
whose  duties  may  call  them  around  the  machine,  as  such 
laws  may  be  interpreted  by  the  New  York  State  in- 
spector. Unless  this  machine  is  received  in  this  condition 
we  reserve  the  right  to  return  it  at  once  without  notifica- 
tion, charging  the  transportation  charges  to  the  maker,  or 
to  make  such  changes  as  may  be  necessary  to  make  it 
satisfactory  to  the  New  York  State  inspector,  and  take 
cost  of  same  from  the  price  formerly  agreed  upon.*' 

This  company  has  experienced  no  trouble  in  buying 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     203 

machines  with  this  clause  attached.  It  is  intended  to 
protect  the  buyers  from  the  cost  of  making  up  the  short- 
comings of  the  designer  with  respect  to  safety. 

A  large  mining  company  in  western  Pennsylvania  has 
inaugurated  the  plan  of  presenting  coat-lapel  buttons  to 
certain  of  its  employees  delegated  to  look  after  the  safety 
of  the  mines  and  the  welfare  of  the  men  employed  therein. 

Blue-and-gold  buttons  with  the  words  "Safety  Com- 
mittee" engraved  on  them  are  worn  by  the  superin- 
tendents, mine  foremen,  assistant  mine  foremen,  fire 
bosses,  and  rib  bosses  at  each  mine,  these  persons  con- 
stituting a  permanent  safety  committee.  In  addition  to 
the  men  filling  these  positions  three  workmen  in  each 
mine  wear  similar  buttons — one  a  miner,  one  a  coal-hauler, 
and  another  man  doing  miscellaneous  work;  these  three 
constitute  a  workmen's  safety  committee,  appointed  by 
the  superintendent  to  serve  for  a  period  of  six  months, 
and  it  is  their  duty — for  which  they  are  especially  com- 
pensated— to  make  regular  periodical  examinations  of 
the  mine,  followed  by  recommendations  to  promote  the 
further  safety  of  employees.  The  general  officers  wear 
these  buttons  also,  and  are  included  as  members  of  the 
permanent  safety  committee. 

Red-white-and-blue  buttons  with  the  words  "First 
Aid  and  Rescue  Corps"  surrounding  the  monogram  of 
this  company  are  self-explanatory  of  the  duties  of  the 
men  wearing  them.  At  each  large  plant  five  men  are 
selected  by  the  superintendent  to  do  this  first-aid  and 
rescue  work  in  case  of  emergency.  These  men  are 
required  to  pass  a  medical  examination,  are  given  instruc- 
tion in  first-aid  treatment  by  doctors  paid  by  the  com- 
pany, and  are  sent  to  one  of  the  company's  rescue  training- 
schools  to  receive  twelve  lessons  in  rescue  work.  They 


204  SAFETY 

are,  however,  detailed  to  wear  this  button  only  after  they 
have  qualified  as  to  their  fitness  to  do  rescue  and  first-aid 
work.  Rescue  stations  are  provided  at  three  plants  cen- 
trally located  and  fitted  up  with  complete  Draeger  oxygen 
apparatus,  pulmotor,  and  other  resuscitating  apparatus. 

On  the  evening  of  June  12,  1912,  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  in  prizes  were  distributed  by  the  National  Cash 
Register  Company  for  the  best  suggestions  turned  in  by 
its  employees  during  a  contest  which  closed  June  ist. 

For  more  than  thirty  days  previous  to  the  contest  over 
six  thousand  men  and  women  were  concentrating  their 
minds  and  directing  their  nervous  energy  toward  the 
working  out  of  ways  to  better  the  company's  organization 
and  product.  The  call  was  made  for  suggestions  in  three 
classes : 

1.  SAFETY  DEVICES.     In  order  that  the  employee  may  devote  his 
time,  thought,  and  energy  to  guarding  his  work  against  defects,  rather 
than  his  person  against  accident  or  injury,  205  prizes  amounting  to 
$1,500  were  awarded  in  this  class. 

2.  WAYS  TO  CONSERVE   THE  HEALTH  OF  EMPLOYEES.    In  order 
that  the  people  who  make  the  National  Cash  Register  may  be  physi- 
cally sound,  and  thus  capable  of  turning  out  only  sound,  healthy  work, 
80  prizes  amounting  to  $500  were  awarded  in  this  class. 

3.  CONVENIENCES.     In  order  that  the  National  Cash  Register  em- 
ployees may  have  the  best  possible  facilities  for  turning  out  high- 
grade  work  at  the  lowest  possible  cost,  and  considering  material, 
workmanship  and  what  they  do,  that  National  Cash  Registers  be  kept 
as  they  are  to-day — the  lowest-priced  machinery  sold  in  the  world — 
80  prizes  amounting  to  $500  were  awarded  in  this  class. 

In  all,  3,970  suggestions  were  turned  in  during  the 
contest. 

A  superintendent  on  the  New  York  Central  lines,  going 
through  an  important  yard  on  his  division,  saw  the 
coupling-lever  of  a  car  lying  between  the  tracks;  he  said 
to  a  group  of  employees,  "Get  out  your  watches  and  see 


GENERAL    AIDS    TO    SAFETY  205 

how  long  it  takes  me  to  throw  this  aside  where  it  won't 
cause  one  of  you  yardmen  to  fall  under  a  moving  train." 
It  took  him  less  than  ten  seconds  to  walk  to  the  lever, 
throw  it  aside,  and  return.  Even  the  ten  seconds  could 
have  and  should  have  been  saved  by  the  man  who  put 
the  lever  there  by  throwing  it  aside  in  the  first  place. 

It  is  the  little  things  in  every  yard,  workshop,  and 
factory  that  the  men  walk  over  and  around  and  see  every 
day,  but  do  not  think  about  until  some  one  gets  hurt. 
Upon  these  points  attention  may  be  concentrated  by 
means  of  the  suggestion  contest. 

Among  these  little  things  may  be  mentioned : 

The  loose  board  with  the  projecting  nail;  the  pile  of 
cinders  or  rubbish  too  close  to  tracks  where  employees 
work,  or  about  the  premises;  loose  and  "flapping"  doors 
on  moving  cars;  material  stored  carelessly;  exposed  set- 
screws  on  revolving  spindles  or  shafting;  unguarded  fly- 
wheels, pulleys,  or  gears;  holes  in  floors  of  shops  and 
platforms ;  insufficient  lighting ;  poor  ventilation ;  a  weak 
ladder  rung  or  support;  the  worn  and  burred  head  of 
hammer,  chisel,  or  bar;  the  absence  of  a  stop-block 
for  overhead  trolley  or  crane;  lump  of  coal  on  deck  of 
engine;  hose  insecurely  attached;  absence  of  signals  and 
warning-signs ;  too  high  or  too  low  footboard  on  engine ; 
material  or  rubbish  in  passageway  of  shops,  depots,  or 
storehouses;  icicles  falling  from  roofs;  snow  or  ice  on 
steps;  absence  of  railings  and  walks;  manhole  or  ditch 
left  open;  even  a  door-stop  placed  out  on  the  floor  in- 
stead of  back  near  the  wall. 

Responsibility  sobers.  Let  the  workmen  feel  that  they 
are  responsible  for  their  own  safety  and  the  safety  of  the 
other  fellow. 

A  pat  on  the  back  sometimes  helps  the  one  trying  to 


2O6 


SAFETY 


do  his  share.  France  pats  collective  labor  on  its  indus- 
trial back  by  its  annual  Fete  du  Travail,  or  Labor  Festi- 
val, when  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  republic  assem- 
ble for  this  purpose. 

The  setting  of  a  recent  festival  was  the  great  hall 
of  the  civic  engineers ;  on  the  platform  were  distinguished 


DANGER   OF   LOOSE    BOARDS    WITH    PROJECTING    NAILS 

officials  of  the  government  and  the  big  men  of  the  in- 
dustrialists. The  president  of  the  republic  was  person- 
ally represented.  Parents,  relatives,  and  friends  crowded 
the  hall.  By  diplomas,  special  mention,  awards,  medals 
of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  those  deserving  distinction  were 
publicly  recompensed,  and  the  eye  of  France  was  on  the 
beneficiaries. 

One   series   of   awards   included   industrialists    whose 
interest  in  the  moral  and  physical  well-being  of  their 


GENERAL    AIDS    TO    SAFETY  207 

apprentices  and  young  workers  took  the  form  of  schemes 
to  secure  safety  and  the  best  sanitation  in  regard  to 
factories  and  workshops  and  of  general  as  well  as  special 
instruction  with  regard  to  the  morals  of  the  workers. 

The  presiding  officer  called  the  name  of  Monsieur 
Laine,  an  associate  in  the  firm  of  Ed.  Laine  &  Co.,  of 
Beauvais;  he  was  particularly  interested  in  the  Mutual 
Aid  Society  in  the  factory,  which  he  started  in  1892;  he 
had  also  introduced  a  medical  service,  simple  talks  on 
hygiene,  first  aid  to  the  injured,  and  the  purchase  and 
preparation  of  the  most  nutritious  food-stuffs  for  the 
employees.  A  restaurant  in  the  factory  and  a  co-opera- 
tive society  were  among  his  foundations.  This  firm  makes 
special  grants  to  the  Society  for  Improved  Dwellings,  so 
that  the  workmen  may  have  an  opportunity  to  bring  up 
their  children  under  healthful  conditions.  For  his  active 
interest  in  these  betterment  institutions  Monsieur  Laine 
was  honored  by  the  silver  medal  of  the  society. 

Foremen  and  women  showing  a  high  degree  of  intelli- 
gence and  devotion  toward  the  young  people  intrusted  to 
their  care  received  altogether  some  seventy-five  awards. 
A  gold  medal  was  given  to  Monsieur  Douselance,  who  had 
completed  forty-two  years  of  service  with  the  same  firm 
to  which  he  had  come  as  an  apprentice  and  workman ;  he 
was  honored  on  account  of  his  kindly  personal  interest  in 
the  workers  under  him. 

An  important  class  of  awards  concerned  apprentices 
nominated  by  their  employers,  societies,  professional 
schools,  and  local  commissions  for  their  ability  and  good 
conduct.  The  prizes  in  their  class  were  credits  in  savings- 
banks  of  two  to  three  dollars  each. 

The  firm  of  Boas,  Roderiques  &  Co.  make  use  of  the 
most  improved  safety  devices ;  they  never  install  a  new 


208  SAFETY 

machine  without  being  sure  that  they  have  safeguarded 
every  point  of  danger.  The  solicitude  of  this  firm  for 
the  welfare  of  their  women  workers  and  apprentices  was 
recognized  by  a  gold  medal. 

An  international  aid/ to  safety  is  a  congress  devoted  to 
an  interchange  of  the  world's  best  thought  in  accident 
prevention  and  industrial  hygiene.  To  illustrate: 

In  May,  1912,  the  first  congress  of  this  kind  was  held 
in  Milan.  It  was  called  on  the  initiative  of  the  French, 
Belgian,  and  Italian  associations  for  the  prevention  of 
accidents  to  labor,  and  had  for  its  patron  his  Majesty 
the  King  of  Italy.  Its  object  was  to  ascertain  the 
practical  results  of  such  safeguards  as  had  recommended 
themselves  to  the  best  Continental  shop  practice.  Of 
equal  importance  were  those  measures  taken  to  promote 
sanitary  conditions  in  factories,  mills,  and  shops. 

Former  congresses  had  been  composed  chiefly  of  med- 
ical men  whose  problem  was  the  study  of  occupational 
diseases,  but  prevention  had  seldom  been  touched  upon. 
Problems  of  prevention  so  closely  concern  the  chemist, 
the  technical  man,  and  the  engineer  that  there  was  felt 
the  need  of  a  purely  technical  congress  as  supplementary 
to  the  deliberations  of  the  medical  fraternity. 

Some  six  hundred  delegates  assembled  May  2pth  in 
Milan,  where  the  opening  sessions  were  held  in  the 
Castello  Sforzesco  under  the  presidency  of  Ing.  Pontiggia. 
Representatives  from  the  government,  the  ministries  and 
the  city  of  Milan  welcomed  and  indorsed  the  congress. 

There  were  six  main  topics  of  discussion: 

I.  Belt-shifting  under  various  conditions. 
II.  Metal,  mixing,  and  rubber  rolls. 
III.  Ventilation,  dust-exhaust,  humidizing  in  cotton  and 
wool  plants. 


GENERAL  AIDS  TO  SAFETY     209 

IV.   Ways  and  means  of  purifying  air  by  drawing  off 

steam  and  vapor  in  dyeing  and  cocoon  spinning. 

V.    Construction  and  operation   of  drying-apparatus, 

hydro-extractors  with  centrifugal  power. 
VI.   Safety  in  handling  high  and  low  electric  currents. 

Other  communications  dealt  with  safety  in  connection 
with  systems  of  transmission,  elevators,  hoists,  wire- 
drawing, dough-mixing  machines,  engine  stops,  railway 
signals,  presses,  and  punches,  and  with  improved  sani- 
tary conditions  in  porcelain,  fertilizer,  and  hat  works, 
printing,  and  textile  establishments. 

A  small  membership  fee  in  these  congresses  entitles 
the  subscriber  to  the  volume  of  proceedings,  practically 
a  text  or  guide  book  in  the  various  fields  of  effort. 


XIV 

ORGANIZED    EFFORT   BY   EMPLOYERS 

THERE  was  a  period  in  the  industrial  history  of 
America  when  employers  were  engrossed  with  the 
vexing  problems  of  rapid  development  in  the  various  lines 
of  industry  to  the  exclusion  of  a  consideration  of  problems 
affecting  the  safety  and  health  of  employees. 

At  that  time,  excepting  in  certain  shops  where  the 
owner  or  manager  was  in  daily  and  intimate  association 
with  the  workers,  the  sole  point  of  contact  between  man- 
agement and  men  was  in  the  pay-envelope.  Since  then, 
however,  the  ranks  of  labor  have  demanded — and  been 
accorded — certain  needed  reforms.  Some  of  these  reforms 
have  been  brought  about  by  agitation  and  legislation,  but 
many  of  them  have  resulted  from  a  changed  attitude  on 
the  part  of  employers  themselves  who  have  come  to 
realize  the  business  value  of  safe,  light,  and  sanitary  work- 
places, compensation  for  injuries  received  in  the  work,  and 
pensions  for  employees  in  recognition  of  long-continued 
and  faithful  service. 

The  modern  business  organization  believes  that  men 
as  well  as  equipment  must  be  maintained  in  first-class 
condition  if  the  business  is  to  yield  its  full  and  legitimate 
returns. 

Elsewhere  in  this  volume  attention  has  been  drawn  to 
the  work  of  the  Central  Safety  Committee  of  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation  and  to  the  aim  of  this  committee 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  211 

gradually  to  standardize  the  safeguards  and  sanitary 
provisions  that  have  proved  most  practical  and  effective 
in  the  experience  of  the  various  subsidiary  companies  of 
the  corporation. 

In  the  same  way  the  great  associations  of  firms  and 
companies  engaged  in  manufacture  and  production  have 
found  it  expedient  and  valuable  to  co-ordinate  and 
standardize  their  individual  efforts  at  safeguarding  the 
lives  and  health  of  their  workers  as  well  as  along  the 
lines  of  what  is  generally  known  as  "welfare  work." 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association,  with  a  mem- 
bership numbering  upward  of  twelve  thousand,  has  re- 
peatedly urged  upon  its  member  companies  careful  con- 
sideration of  their  standing  in  the  communities  served  by 
them,  and  the  importance  of  eliminating  on  their  part 
any  conditions  that  might  lead  to  friction,  criticism,  or  a 
sense  of  injustice  and  unfair  dealing. 

Where  monopoly  of  service  is  granted  to  a  member 
company  the  association  points  out  the  increased  re- 
sponsibility of  that  company  to  become  an  important 
factor  in  the  better  development  of  the  community  in 
which  the  service  is  rendered.  It  believes  that  even 
greater  efforts  toward  good  service,  fair  prices,  and  har- 
monious organization  should  be  made  in  such  com- 
munities than  where  competition  is  most  keen. 

In  a  recent  report  the  Public  Policy  Committee  of  the 
National  Electric  Light  Association  laid  great  stress  upon 
the  necessity  of  eliminating  all  suggestion  of  charity  or 
philanthropy  from  the  relationship  between  employees 
and  employers.  It  was  pointed  out  that  while  an  em- 
ployee performs  his  specified  task  for  a  definite  wage  he 
can  also  render  his  employer  service  by  working  con- 
tinuously and  in  showing  a  degree  of  loyalty  which 

15 


212  SAFETY 

affects  not  only  his  own  work,  but  that  of  other  employees 
working  with  him.  Continuous  service  makes  for  effi- 
ciency; increased  devotion  to  his  employer  eliminates 
or  lessens  that  attitude  known  as  "soldiering";  and 
economy  may  also  be  expected  as  a  result  of  a  more  careful 
use  of  tools  and  materials. 

With  a  view  of  securing  this  service  and  loyalty  from 
employees  the  Public  Policy  Committee,  in  its  report 
to  the  Thirty-fourth  Annual  Convention  of  the  National 
Electric  Light  Association  in  1911,  recommended  that 
employers  of  the  electrical  industry  should  take  a  leading 
part  in  the  development  of  the  health  and  safety,  material 
welfare,  and  happiness  of  their  employees,  and  that  each 
company  or  corporation  should  adopt  as  its  own  policy, 
or  encourage  its  employees  to  adopt,  any  one  of  the 
following  six  plans  for  social  betterment  or  uplift: 

1.  Accident  insurance 

2.  Sickness  insurance  and  death  benefits 

3.  Service  annuities 

4.  Profit-sharing 

5.  Employees'  savings  and  investment  funds 

6.  Life  insurance 

From  an  insurance  actuarial  point  of  view  so  little 
information  was  available  upon  the  cost  of  accident 
insurance,  sickness  insurance,  death  benefits,  and  service 
annuities  that  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  secure  the 
services  of  an  insurance  accountant  to  analyze  and  report 
upon  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  various  forms  of  in- 
surance relationship. 

In  addition  to  referring  the  technical  consideration  of 
these  forms  of  insurance  to  an  expert  actuary,  information 
of  a  statistical  nature  was  requested  from  the  various 
member  companies. 

Nearly   three   hundred   companies   replied   in   detail, 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  213 

showing  that  a  very  large  percentage  have  adopted  some 
form  of  welfare  relationship  conforming  with  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  committee.  One  hundred  and  forty 
of  these  companies  now  provide  free  medical  and  surgical 
attendance  in  the  event  of  industrial  illness  or  accident, 
and  twenty-eight  companies  regularly  employ  physicians 
or  surgeons  for  their  employees ;  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  companies  continue  their  employees  on  the  pay-roll 
at  full  pay  during  full  or  partial  period  of  illness;  ten 
member  companies  now  provide  service  annuities,  eight 
have  adopted  some  form  of  profit-sharing,  nineteen  have 
employees'  investment  or  savings  fund  associations,  and 
a  similar  number  provide  life  insurance. 

The  New  York  Edison  Company  was  one  of  the  first 
companies  to  adopt  the  plan  of  service  annuities  for  its 
employees.  During  the  past  year  the  same  plan  has 
been  put  into  operation  by  the  Commonwealth  Edison 
Company.  The  Employees'  Saving  Fund  of  the  Com- 
monwealth Edison  Company,  created  in  1909,  now 
amounts  to  $230,000,  and  owns  twenty-three  hundred 
shares  of  the  company's  stock;  an  interesting  feature  of 
the  welfare  work  of  that  company  is  the  continuation  on 
the  pay-roll  for  periods  ranging  from  one-half  of  a  month 
to  six  months  of  fourteen  tubercular  employees,  whose 
wages  or  salaries  during  the  period  of  illness  amounted 
to  $2,740. 

The  Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Company  of  Brooklyn 
has  in  force  a  plan  of  profit-sharing,  and  at  the  end  of 
1911  devoted  to  this  purpose  $45,674.50,  as  compared 
with  $38,171.03  at  the  end  of  1910;  the  employees'  sav- 
ings, in  addition  to  their  profit-sharing  credits,  amounted 
on  April  15,  1912,  to  $91,641.15;  the  combined  total  in 
the  Investment  Fund  on  April  15,  1912,  was  $176,783.66, 


214  SAFETY 

and  the  employees  through  this  fund  owned  nine  hundred 
and  sixty-two  shares  of  stock  and  $34,000  of  the  com- 
pany's debentures. 

A  most  important  step  in  general  welfare  work  has 
been  taken  by  the  Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Company 
of  Boston.  The  organization  of  that  company  had  been 
divided  into  five  bureaus — accounting,  construction, 
executive,  operating,  and  purchasing.  A  sixth  bureau 
has  now  been  created,  called  the  Welfare  Bureau,  for 
which  a  chief  has  been  appointed.  This  bureau  will  have 
entire  charge  of  the  general  relations  of  the  company  to 
its  employees  in  all  matters  outside  of  their  regular  duties 
and  employment. 

The  Philadelphia  Electric  Company's  Beneficial  Asso- 
ciation continues  automatically  to  take  care  of  all  cases 
of  temporary  disability  due  to  illness  or  accident.  During 
the  past  five  years  $61,000  has  been  paid  on  account  of 
temporary  disability,  $42,000  paid  in  death  benefits  to 
the  beneficiaries  of  forty-eight  deceased  employees,  while 
for  the  full  period  of  five  years  the  total  contributions 
of  the  deceased  members  to  the  death -benefit  fund 
amounted  to  only  $325,  or  an  average  of  less  than  $7 
per  member.  On  account  of  the  retiring  age  not  being 
compulsory  there  is  but  one  member  on  its  rolls.  His 
annuity  is  equal  to  about  50  per  cent,  of  what  he  had 
been  earning.  Generous  encouragement  is  also  given  to 
activities  of  an  educational  and  physical  character,  the 
Athletic  Association  having  a  membership  of  nearly  nine 
hundred.  The  annual  distribution  of  cash  to  employees 
every  Christmas,  a  custom  of  years,  is  being  continued, 
in  addition  to  all  other  welfare  work. 

The  Cleveland  Electric  Illuminating  Company  has  for 
eight  years  distributed  through  its  Employees'  Fund  a 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  215 

sum  increasing  annually  from  $6,457.72,  or  6  per  cent,  of 
the  annual  earnings  of  145  members  in  1904,  to  $34,195.58, 
or  8  per  cent,  of  the  annual  earnings  of  463  members  in 
1911.  The  total  distribution  made  up  to  1912  was 
$136,881.55,  of  which  amount  $57,817.40  was  distributed 
in  cash  and  $79,064.15  allowed  to  remain  in  the  fund  to 
the  credit  of  employees  at  an  interest  rate  of  4  per  cent, 
annually.  The  company  also  assumes  all  medical  ex- 
pense following  accidents  to  employees  while  engaged  in 
their  work,  and  usually  allows  full  compensation  to  such 
disabled  employees. 

Stone  &  Webster  have  adopted  throughout  the  various 
branches  of  their  organization  a  plan  for  welfare  work 
which,  while  not  as  yet  crystallized  into  a  well-defined 
system,  is,  nevertheless,  extremely  effective  and  has 
given,  so  far  as  can  be  learned,  entire  satisfaction.  The 
Stone  &  Webster  Employees'  Investment  Association  was 
organized  with  a  board  of  trustees  acting  under  a  deed  of 
trust.  The  trustees  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  em- 
ployees and  also  the  members  of  the  firm.  From  the 
board  of  trustees  is  elected  an  executive  committee,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  attend  to  the  affairs  of  the  association  and 
make  the  necessary  investments.  The  firm  furnishes, 
without  expense,  the  necessary  headquarters  and  most  of 
the  clerical  force  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  work,  and 
in  addition  gives  the  association  an  opportunity  to  invest 
in  any  undertakings  upon  the  same  basis  as  the  bankers 
or  original  syndicates  which  invest  in  the  enterprises. 
Besides  this  the  firm  at  the  start  contributed  a  substantial 
amount  of  money  to  form  a  guarantee  fund  to  provide 
against  possible  loss.  The  employees  of  the  organization 
have  availed  themselves  very  largely  of  this  opportunity 
to  invest,  and  there  is  at  present  deposited  in  the  associa- 


216  SAFETY 

tion  between  $600,000  and  $700,000.  The  association 
has  paid  for  over  a  period  of  ten  years  an  average  of  about 
7  per  cent.  The  various  branches  of  the  Stone  &  Webster 
organization  also  have  special  funds  deposited  in  trust 
for  welfare  work.  A  certain  amount  of  money  is  set 
aside  each  year,  to  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the  officers 
for  the  benefit  of  employees.  So  far  it  has  been  used 
mainly  in  providing  help  in  cases  of  illness  and  for  pensions 
for  men  who,  through  illness  or  for  other  reasons,  are 
incapacitated  for  work.  As  yet  no  old-age  pensions  have 
been  established,  but  in  the  course  of  time  this  will 
undoubtedly  be  necessary.  In  the  various  camps  where 
engineering  work  is  carried  on  the  company  has  provided 
special  lodgings  for  its  men  and  has  organized  clubs  among 
the  men,  to  which  the  men  themselves  contribute  in  part 
and  the  company  in  part  in  order  to  provide  comfortable 
living-quarters  and  hospital  accommodations  in  case  of 
illness.  In  the  operating  department  of  the  business 
similar  clubs  have  been  organized  in  the  cities  where 
Stone  &  Webster  have  street  railway,  lighting,  or  power 
plants,  and  colony  houses  have  been  established  partly 
by  the  employees  and  partly  under  the  patronage  of  the 
organization. 

H.  M.  Byllesby  &  Co.  now  have  an  investment  club, 
through  which  the  employees  of  their  various  interests  may 
invest  their  savings.  Membership  is  entirely  voluntary. 
Starting  in  1910,  there  were  350  members,  with  subscrip- 
tions amounting  to  $57,064,  upon  which  in  eight  months 
a  substantial  profit  was  realized;  in  1911  the  investments 
amounted  to  $225,710,  divided  among  857  subscribers;  a 
further  series  of  investments  was  started  in  August,  1911, 
for  which  there  were  864  members  subscribing  $301,952. 

The  Milwaukee  Electric  Railway  and  Light  Company 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  217 

and  associated  companies  have  established  a  service- 
annuity  system,  loan-fund,  and  mutual-benefit  association. 

The  Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light  and  Power  Com- 
pany of  Baltimore  has  adopted  a  service-annuity  plan, 
issuing  to  the  beneficiaries  a  service  certificate. 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association,  believing  that 
the  productive  value  of  underpaid,  underfed  men  and 
women  cannot  be  equal  to  that  of  workers  who  earn 
enough  to  insure  good  health  and  a  reasonable  degree  of 
contentment,  has  expressed  itself  in  favor  of  a  minimum 
wage,  especially  as  applied  to  beginners,  unskilled  workers, 
and  women  employees. 

Believing  also  in  the  direct  relation  between  suitable 
hygienic  conditions  and  operating  efficiency,  the  associa- 
tion has  urged  upon  its  members  the  importance  of  pro- 
viding proper  toilet  conveniences,  sanitary  washing 
facilities,  pure  drinking-water,  and  fresh  air  by  adequate 
means  of  ventilation. 

The  Commonwealth  Edison  Company  offers  a  striking 
illustration  of  what  can  be  accomplished  in  restoring  sick 
employees  to  health  through  intelligent  care. 

Of  11,834  examinations  of  employees  made  for  indica- 
tions of  tuberculosis  this  company  found  35  tubercular 
cases — 24  of  an  incipient  and  n  of  an  advanced  nature. 
Of  this  number  19  were  transferred  to  outdoor  positions 
in  the  company's  service ;  5  were  given  positions  in  a  more 
suitable  climate;  4  recovered  and  returned  to  duty;  3 
left  the  service  of  the  company,  2  of  them  going  to  a  more 
suitable  climate;  and  3  died;  the  company's  doctor  re- 
ports that  only  i  now  appears  to  have  no  chance  of  re- 
covery. Thus,  of  the  35  cases,  incipient  and  advanced, 
23  remaining  in  the  service  of  the  company  have  good 
chance  of  full  recovery;  adding  the  5  for  whom  positions 


218  SAFETY 

were  secured  in  another  climate  brings  the  total  of  28 
of  the  original  number  whose  health  has  been  restored 
through  the  company's  efforts  in  this  direction. 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association  believes,  how- 
ever, that  means  should  be  taken  to  prevent  accidents 
and  ill  health,  as  well  as  to  care  afterward  for  the  injured 
or  sick  worker. 

Recognizing  the  importance  of  the  new  movement  for 
industrial  safety,  the  Denver  Gas  and  Electric  Light 
Company  recently  had  all  of  its  plants  surveyed  and  re- 
ported upon  by  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  with  a 
view  to  eliminating  any  dangerous  conditions. 

No  one  can  question  the  greater  contentment  and  the 
enhanced  efficiency  in  their  work  on  the  part  of  workmen 
whose  safety  is  well  assured.  The  initial  cost  fades  into 
insignificance  in  comparison  with  the  reduction  in  human 
suffering  and  individual  loss  of  earning  power. 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association  has,  therefore, 
urged  upon  its  membership  the  investigation  of  every 
accident,  the  adoption  of  such  means  as  may  be  necessary 
to  prevent  its  recurrence,  and  the  careful  inspection  of 
member  companies'  plants  to  insure  that  no  element  of 
protection  is  missing  through  which  injury  may  occur  to 
their  workmen. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  numbers  in  its 
membership  upward  of  seven  hundred  companies  in  good 
standing. 

Among  the  subjects  with  which  the  association  has 
concerned  itself  and  upon  which  it  has  spent  much  time 
and  energy  are:  industrial  education  and  the  training  of 
apprentices;  legislation  in  the  states  and  in  Congress; 
co-operative  profit-sharing  plans;  the  publication  of  a 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  219 

periodical,  in  conjunction  with  the  National  Founders 
Association,  under  the  name  of  The  Review,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  placing  before  workmen  matters  mutually  advan- 
tageous to  employer  and  employee;  the  fostering  of  the 
movement  for  greater  safety  and  improved  sanitary  con- 
ditions in  shop  and  factory;  and  the  establishment  of 
local  employment  bureaus  to  provide  capable  workmen 
for  employers  and  suitable  positions  for  employees. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  has  always 
advocated  the  payment  by  its  members  of  the  highest 
wages  possible  in  the  locality  in  which  the  manufacturer 
finds  himself.  Wages  being  a  purely  local  question,  the 
fixing  of  rates  of  wages  is  left  to  the  localities  affected,  and 
is  a  matter  in  which  the  association  takes  no  part. 

Profit-sharing  plans  have  been  discussed  at  annual 
conventions  of  the  association  and  are  in  operation  among 
members.  One  of  these  is  the  Crane  Company's  plan  of 
an  annual  distribution  among  their  employees  of  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  earnings  of  each  man  for  the  past  year. 
The  payment  is  made  about  Christmas-time,  and  is  known 
as  a  Christmas  present.  A  man  discharged  for  cause  or 
leaving  of  his  own  accord  forfeits  his  share,  while  one  who 
is  away  without  fault  is  entitled  to  participate  pro  rata. 

Another  plan  contemplates  first  the  payment  of  a 
given  dividend  on  the  investment  of  the  manufacturer 
out  of  the  profits,  and  an  agreed  division  of  what  remains 
between  the  company  and  its  employees. 

Other  plans  are  based  on  the  purchase  by  the  employee 
of  stock  in  the  employing  company,  to  be  paid  for  by  in- 
stalments out  of  dividends  or  the  wages  earned. 

The  payment  of  a  bonus,  or  a  premium,  as  distinguished 
from  the  old  piece-work  system,  for  work  done  over  and 
above  an  agreed  amount  gives  the  workman  of  exceptional 


220  SAFETY 

ability  an  incentive  to  increase  his  earnings  by  steady  and 
consistent  work,  and  this  plan  is  in  use  in  a  great  many 
members'  shops  and  factories.  It  leads  to  suggestions  for 
shortening  the  time  in  which  operations  can  be  done  and 
for  improvement  in  equipment. 

Among  certain  companies  a  plan  of  paying  to  workmen 
a  reward  for  inventions  which  are  patentable  and  improve- 
ments which  are  valuable  has  encouraged  employees  to 
use  their  brains  for  industrial  betterment. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  believes  that  a 
profit-sharing .  plan  tends  to  decrease  the  possibility  of 
industrial  disturbance,  encourages  thrift  on  the  part  of 
employees,  and  gives  them  an  interest  in  the  operation 
of  the  plant  which  is  otherwise  wanting. 

Also  this  association  has  taken  the  position  that  the 
first  step  in  the  plan  of  compensation  for  industrial  acci- 
dents is  the  prevention  of  accidents.  The  question  of 
greater  safety  in  the  shops  of  the  members  has  been  dis- 
cussed at  the  annual  conventions  for  years,  and  the  asso- 
ciation has  sought  in  many  ways  to  influence  its  individ- 
ual members  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  number  of 
accidents  in  their  plants. 

In  furtherance  of  this  plan  a  mechanic  of  ability  who 
has  given  considerable  study  to  the  subject  was  appointed 
safety  inspector  of  the  association,  to  inspect  the  shops 
of  members  with  a  view  to  pointing  out  dangerous  condi- 
tions to  those  in  charge  and  of  suggesting  the  remedies 
to  be  applied.  The  employers  were  a  unit  in  the  cordial 
reception  of  the  plan,  officials  of  the  plants  which  were  well 
protected  seeming  equally  anxious  with  those  who  for- 
merly had  given  the  matter  only  casual  thought  to  receive 
suggestions  for  increasing  the  safety  of  their  equipment. 

Lectures  and  talks  illustrated  by  lantern  slides  have 


AN   OLD-TYPE   FACTORY — POOR  LIGHTING,  NO    SAFEGUARDS  FOR   MACHINES   OR  CON- 
SIDERATION   FOR    THE    HEALTH    OF    WORKERS 


ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRICITAETS   GESELLSCHAFT  AT  BERLIN,  DESIGNED   BY  PROFESSOR 
BEHREND,    ONE    OF   GERMANY'S   FOREMOST  ARCHITECTS 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  221 

been  and  are  being  given  by  the  association's  safety  in- 
spector to  groups  of  workmen  and  employers,  to  classes  of 
students  and  apprentices,  and  wherever  interest  in  the 
subject  has  been  displayed. 

The  association  has  also  published  a  pamphlet  on 
safety  appliances,  with  the  object  of  placing  before  its 
members  and  others  interested  a  convenient  list  of  devices 
for  the  prevention  of  industrial  accidents. 

The  economic  value  of  sanitary  surroundings  for 
employees  has  been  discussed  and  constantly  called  to  the 
attention  of  members,  although  many  employers  are 
humane  enough  to  provide  these  things  on  other  than  a 
commercial  basis. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  early  in  its 
history  took  the  position  that  the  old  common-law  basis 
of  fault  as  a  ground  for  recovery  or  defense,  as  the  case 
might  be,  was  ill-suited  to  the  conditions  of  our  times. 
This  common-law  doctrine  grew  up  when  individual  effort 
and  undertaking  was  largely  the  order  of  the  day  and  vast 
aggregations  of  capital  and  the  use  of  machinery  by  con- 
siderable numbers  of  workmen  were  things  unknown.  It 
was  early  recognized  that  the  burden  of  inevitable  acci- 
dents should  be  carried,  not  wholly  by  the  victim  and  his 
dependents,  but  in  part  at  least  by  the  industry  respon- 
sible for  them,  so  that  the  cost  could  be  in  turn  charged 
to  the  consumer.  When  this  subject  was  first  broached 
in  the  annual  conventions  of  the  association  its  members, 
like  all  other  employers,  were  doubtful  as  to  the  best 
plan  to  pursue,  but  a  committee  was  appointed  and  has 
been  continuously  active  in  keeping  the  members  in- 
formed and  in  working  for  uniform  provisions  throughout 
the  country.  The  movement  has  gathered  headway  very 
rapidly,  and  to-day  a  large  number  of  the  states  have 


222  SAFETY 

legislated  for  systematic  compensation  for  industrial  ac- 
cidents. 

The  welfare  work  in  behalf  of  telephone  operators  is 
particularly  interesting  because  it  was  an  early  undertak- 
ing intended  to  benefit  the  public  through  the  resulting 
improvement  of  the  service. 

The  standard  switchboard  has  been  designed  with  refer- 
ence to  the  reach  of  the  arm  of  the  average  young  woman. 
Special  receivers  and  transmitters  have  been  designed 
to  permit  her  hands  to  be  free  to  operate  especially  de- 
signed cords  and  keys.  Careful  experiments  were  made  to 
discover  the  right  sort  of  a  chair  for  her  to  sit  in  and  just 
how  high  her  foot-rest  should  be.  The  engineers  have  not 
stopped  here,  but  have  gone  on  to  solve  the  problems  of 
light,  heat,  and  abundant  fresh  air,  so  that  hygienic  con- 
ditions would  be  as  nearly  ideal  as  possible. 

The  establishment  of  rest-rooms  with  competent  ma- 
trons in  charge  is  perhaps  the  one  most  important  accom- 
plishment in  this  direction.  Before  going  to  work  or  during 
intervals  of  work  at  the  switchboard  the  rest-room  becomes 
a  sort  of  clubroom — comfortable,  attractive,  with  all  of 
the  conveniences  of  a  home,  and  with  many  of  the  luxuries 
of  a  club.  In  connection  with  the  rest-rooms  it  is  quite 
common  to  maintain  dormitories  for  girls  who  are  belated 
and  simple  hospital  arrangements  for  girls  who  are  sudden- 
ly taken  ill ;  and  in  most  of  the  larger  cities  there  are  either 
restaurants  or  facilities  for  cooking.  Some  of  the  rest- 
rooms  contain  a  piano  so  that  the  girls  can  dance,  and 
generally  the  rooms  are  stocked  with  magazines  and 
games.  Often  there  are  flowers  or  growing  plants,  and 
in  some  cases  libraries  built  up  by  joint  contributions 
from  the  girls  and  the  telephone  management.  Roof- 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  223 

gardens  have  been  a  recent  innovation,  and  calisthenics 
for  students  are  growing  in  favor. 

It  is  customary  at  practically  all  offices  to  furnish 
individual  lockers  where  the  girls  may  keep  their  outer 
clothing  and  individual  telephone  sets. 

Very  often  the  rest-room  is  the  starting-point  of  social 
life  among  the  girls,  and  leads  to  lectures,  entertainments, 
and  other  social  activities  which  naturally  result  from  the 
association  of  young  people. 

A  very  important  feature  of  the  welfare  work  is  the 
operators'  school,  which  has  become  a  recognized  neces- 
sity, especially  in  cities.  In  order  to  become  members  of 
this  school  applicants  for  positions  must  pass  preliminary 
examinations  as  to  their  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
qualifications. 

The  Western  Union  Telegraph  and  allied  telephone 
companies  have  recently  created  a  pension  and  disability 
fund  for  the  benefit  of  their  employees,  which  became 
operative  on  January  i,  1913.  This  has  called  for  the 
establishment  of  a  medical  department,  the  function 
of  which  is  intended  to  extend  beyond  the  ordinary 
work  of  such  a  department,  for  it  will  deal  not  only 
with  sick  and  disabled  employees,  but  will  carry  out  pre- 
ventive measures  in  the  interest  of  the  employees  and 
employers. 

While  the  companies  do  not  expect  to  furnish  medical 
attendance  for  their  employees,  except  in  special  in- 
stances, every  reasonable  and  practical  effort  will  be  made 
to  insure  them  prompt  and  skilful  treatment. 

The  preventive  measures  will  include  careful  observa- 
tion of  the  employees  in  order  that  disease  or  impairment 
of  health  may  be  promptly  detected,  particularly  diseases 
of  an  infectious  character,  as,  for  instance,  tuberculosis. 


224  SAFETY 

Prompt  removal  of  the  case  not  only  secures  a  far  better 
chance  of  recovery  for  the  person  involved,  but  extends 
valuable  protection  to  other  employees.  The  preventive 
work  will  also  deal  with  ventilation,  lighting  and  heating, 
safe  plumbing,  modern  sanitary  arrangements,  and  pro- 
tection against  injury. 

By  various  means  the  employees  will  be  instructed  in 
modern  sanitation,  one  of  which  will  be  the  monthly 
publication  of  a  bulletin  presenting  some  article  on  this 
subject  which  will  be  generally  and  extensively  distrib- 
uted. 

These  various  methods  are  expected  to  prove  not  only 
of  great  benefit  to  the  employees,  but  also  of  value  to  the 
employers,  who*  will  secure  better  and  less  interrupted 
service  on  the  part  of  the  employees  as  well  as  their 
co-operation. 

According  to  the  United  States  census  of  manufactures 
taken  in  1910,  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors  ranked 
sixth  among  the  great  industries  of  the  United  States  in 
amount  of  capital.  In  1909  the  1,414  breweries  in  the 
United  States  distributed  $41,206,000  in  wages.  For 
the  same  year  the  census  gives  the  value  of  the  products 
of  the  brewing  industry  as  $374,730,000,  ranking  the 
industry  seventeenth  among  the  industries  of  the  United 
States  in  point  of  value  of  products. 

The  United  States  Brewers  Association,  organized  in 
1862,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  influential  of  the 
various  exchanges  and  associations  peculiar  to  the  brewing 
industry.  At  present  it  carries  on  its  rolls  some  seven 
hundred  member  companies. 

The  association  has  generally  achieved  excellent  results 
in  regard  to  labor  matters  by  a  policy  combining  fairness 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  225 

and  firmness  with  an  appreciation  of  the  workman's  point 
of  view  and  sympathy  in  meeting  demands  and  making 
plans  for  improving  the  wage-earner's  condition. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  association's  activ- 
ities has  been  its  effort  to  consummate  a  workmen's  com- 
pensation and  old-age-pension  plan  for  the  employees  of 
American  breweries.  After  much  arduous  work  in  con- 
junction with  a  committee  of  the  Brewery  Workers' 
Union  a  plan  was  evolved  which  attracted  much  atten- 
tion and  favorable  comment  from  those  who  have  made  a 
study  of  these  subjects.  Unfortunately,  the  plan  was  re- 
jected by  the  International  Union  of  Brewery  Workmen 
to  whom  it  was  referred.  In  spite  of  the  present  failure  of 
its  own  plan  the  United  States  Brewers  Association  has 
strongly  urged  upon  its  members  cordial  support  of 
compensation  plans  pending  in  the  various  state  legis- 
latures. 

Believing,  however,  that  the  prevention  of  avoidable 
accidents  is  of  far  greater  value  than  compensation  for 
injuries  sustained,  the  association  stands  ready  at  all 
times  to  furnish  its  members  with  suggestions  and  advice, 
based  upon  expert  experience,  for  the  safeguarding  of 
machinery  and  working-places. 

The  members  are  strongly  urged  to  support  actively 
proposed  legislation  in  their  respective  states,  tending 
toward  improvement  in  factory  inspection  and  the  use  of 
safety  devices  on  dangerous  machines,  and  to  do  all  in  their 
power  to  make  the  breweries  of  the  country  models  of 
cleanliness,  sanitation,  and  efficiency. 

The  National  Association  of  Manufacturers  is  another 
influential  organization  which  as  a  body  has  manifested 
a  practical  and  progressive  attitude  toward  the  modern 


226       .  SAFETY 

problems  of  accident  prevention,  compensation  for  in- 
juries received,  and  industrial  education. 

At  a  meeting  of  its  board  of  directors  in  July,  1909, 
a  special  committee  was  named  to  make  a  thorough  inves- 
tigation of  the  subjects  of  accident  prevention  and  relief 
with  a  view  to  improving  conditions  in  American  industry. 

As  a  result  of  the  replies  received  to  the  committee's 
inquiry  among  the  employers  of  the  United  States,  and  of 
its  report  before  the  annual  convention  of  the  association 
in  May,  1910,  the  following  resolutions  were  adopted: 

That  the  present  system  of  determining  employers'  liability  is  un- 
satisfactory, wasteful,  slow  in  operation,  and  antagonistic  to  har- 
monious relations  between  employers  and  wage-earners;  that  an 
equitable,  mutually  contributory  indemnity  system,  automatically 
providing  relief  for  victims  of  industrial  accidents  and  their  dependents, 
is  required  to  reduce  waste,  litigation,  and  friction,  and  to  meet  the 
demands  of  an  enlightened  nation,  and  that  prevention  of  accidents 
is  of  even  greater  importance  than  equitable  compensation  to  injured 
workers. 

To  continue  the  investigations  undertaken  the  associa- 
tion authorized  the  chairman  of  the  committee  and  its 
special  counsel  to  visit  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
sonally observing  the  operation  of  the  prevailing  systems 
for  the  prevention  of  and  compensation  for  accidents. 
The  information  gained  was  published  by  the  association 
in  a  book. 

More  recently  the  National  Association  of  Manufac- 
turers has  been  extending  its  educational  work  by  means 
of  lectures  in  various  parts  of  the  country  by  its  special 
committee,  by  inspections  of  the  plants  of  member  com- 
panies, and  by  illustrated  articles  on  accident  prevention 
and  related  subjects  in  American  Industries,  the  associa- 
tion's official  magazine. 

The  association  has  also  given  its  consideration  to  the 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  227 

need  of  a  better  system  of  industrial  education,  and  at  its 
last  annual  convention  in  New  York  City  pledged  sup- 
port to  the  following  principles  of  educational  betterment : 

1.  Continuation  schools  for  that  half  of  the  children  who  leave 
school  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  mostly  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades,  these  continuation  schools  to  be  liberally  cultural  and  at  the 
same  time  to  be  extremely  practical  and  related  as  directly  as  possible 
to  the  occupations  in  which  the  several  students  are  engaged. 

2.  The  development  of  a  modern  apprenticeship  system  wherein 
by  contract  the  respective  and  equal  rights  of  employer  and  employee 
are  fully  recognized,  the  entire  trade  is  taught,  and  such  other  subjects 
as  are  essential  to  good  citizenship. 

3.  The  development  of  secondary  continuation  or  trade  schools 
by  which,  from  the  great  army  of  boys  and  girls  who  will  enter  the 
continuation  schools,  many  may  progress  from  these  lower  continua- 
tion schools,  as  in  some  other  countries,  to  the  foremost  places  in 
industry  and  commerce. 

4.  Compulsory    education    through    adolescence    being    until    the 
seventeenth  or  eighteenth  year,  attendance  being  in  all-day  schools 
until  the  fourteenth  year,  and  thereafter  in  either  the  all-day  schools 
or  in  the  continuation  schools  for  not  less  than  one-half  day  per  week 
without  loss  of  wage. 

5.  The  strengthening  of  all  truancy  laws  and  the  development  of 
public  sentiment  in  support  thereof. 

6.  The  training  of  teachers  in  thoroughgoing  methods  of  industrial 
practice,  including  as  part  of  such  training  extended  experience  in 
actual  shop  work. 

7.  The  establishment  of  independent  state  and  local  boards  of  indus- 
trial education,  consisting  of  one-third  each  professional  educators,  em- 
ployers, and  employees,  thereby  insuring,  as  in  the  more  successful  Euro- 
pean countries,  the  proper  correlation  of  the  schools  and  the  industries. 

8.  The  development  of  the  vocational  and  creative  desires  of  the 
concrete  or  hand-minded  children  now  in  the  grades,  discouraged, 
anxious  to  quit,  and  often  called  backward  only  because  the  education 
now  tendered  them  is  abstract  and  misfit. 

9.  The  establishment  of  shop  schools  and  part-time  schools  when- 
ever practicable. 

10.  The  establishment  of  departments   or   centers  of  vocational 
guidance  so  that  the  great  majority  of  the  children  who  now  enter 
industry  at  fourteen  with  no  direction,  85  per  cent,  falling  into  the 
"blind  alley"  occupations,  may  reverse  the  figures  as  abroad  and 
enter,   under   advice,   intelligently   and   properly   upon   progressive 
occupations. 

16 


228  SAFETY 

During  the  past  few  years  many  corporations  have 
instituted  educational  courses  for  their  employees  as 
described  in  the  chapter  on  "Industrial  Education." 
Several  of  the  larger  industrial  organizations  have  as  many 
as  three  schools.  Just  how  many  corporations  have  in- 
stituted educational  work  is  not  at  this  time  known, 
but  the  number  is  probably  in  excess  of  two  hundred.  A 
concerted  movement  to  organize  these  individual  cor- 
poration schools  into  a  national  association  has  been 
going  on  quietly  for  some  time.  Finally,  on  January  24, 
1913,  representatives  of  thirty-seven  corporations  met  in 
New  York  City  at  the  New  York  University  by  invita- 
tion of  Chancellor  Brown  and  organized  the  National  As- 
sociation of  Corporation  Schools. 

The  object  is  to  maintain  a  central  office  where  a  paid 
force  will  gather  data  regarding  the  various  schools,  ar- 
range these  data,  correlate  them,  and  make  them  avail- 
able to  all  corporations,  firms,  or  individuals  who  desire  to 
institute  educational  courses  for  their  employees. 

The  purposes  of  the  association  in  brief  are  to  render 
new  corporation  schools  successful  from  the  start  by  warn- 
ing them  against  the  pitfalls  into  which  others  have 
fallen  and  to  provide  a  forum  where  corporation-school 
officers  may  interchange  experiences  with  a  view  to 
improving  the  instruction  in  their  respective  schools. 
The  control  is  to  be  vested  entirely  in  the  member  cor- 
porations, thus  admitting  only  so  much  of  theory  and 
extraneous  activities  as  the  corporations  themselves  feel 
will  be  beneficial  and  will  return  dividends  on  their  invest- 
ments of  time  and  membership  fees. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  membership  shall  be  divided  into 
three  classes:  Class  A  (company  members),  Class  B 
(members),  and  Class  C  (associate  members). 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  229 

Class  A  members  shall  be  commercial,  industrial, 
transportation,  or  governmental  organizations,  whether 
under  corporation,  firm,  or  individual  ownership,  which 
now  are  or  may  be  interested  in  the  education  of  their  em- 
ployees. They  shall  be  entitled,  through  their  properly 
accredited  representatives,  to  attend  all  meetings  of  the 
association,  to  vote,  and  to  hold  office. 

Class  B  members  shall  be  officers,  managers,  or  instruc- 
tors of  schools  conducted  by  corporations  which  are  Class 
A  members.  They  shall  be  entitled  to  hold  office  and  to 
attend  all  general  meetings  of  the  association. 

Class  C  members  shall  be  those  not  eligible  for  member- 
ship in  Class  A  or  Class  B  but  who  are  in  sympathy  with 
the  objects  of  the  association.  They  shall  be  entitled  to 
attend  all  general  meetings  of  the  association. 

A  discussion  of  the  activities  of  organizations  of  em- 
ployers in  the  field  of  accident  prevention  is  not  complete 
without  special  reference  to  the  work  of  the  German 
trade  associations,  each  of  which  has  its  own  staff  of 
experts  and  inspectors  who  devote  their  entire  time  to 
making  the  association's  plants  safe  and  efficient  work- 
places. 

Every  year  these  inspectors  present  a  summary  of  the 
conditions  under  which  accidents  have  happened  in  their 
plants,  and  these  accounts  are  printed  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  association,  so  that  each  member  may  re- 
ceive the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  such  collective 
experience. 

By  way  of  illustration,  the  North  German  Iron  and 
Steel  Trade  Association  recently  received  from  its  in- 
spectors the  following  condensed  report  on  conditions 
under  which  accidents  have  occurred:" 


23o  SAFETY 

MOTORS:  6  accidents;  i  fatal. 

One  accident  occurred  with  a  donkey-engine.  The  man  testing 
the  boiler  had  a  finger  crushed.  Four  workmen  were  maimed 
testing  the  boiler  of  a  gasolene-engine.  In  two  cases  the  crank 
kicked,  and  in  four  cases  the  jack  fell  and  crushed  the  man's  foot. 
The  death,  which  occurred  in  handling  an  electrometer,  was  from 
cause  unknown,  presumably,  however,  from  a  belt  running  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  motor. 

TRANSMISSIONS:    19  accidents;  4  fatal. 

Four  workmen  were  injured,  one  of  them  fatally,  by  revolving- 
wheels.  The  man  killed  fell  from  his  ladder  while  cleaning 
windows  and  was  caught  by  the  wheel.  In  two  cases  the  injured, 
in  spite  of  warnings,  attached  the  belt  to  the  wheel  while  in  mo- 
tion and  were  caught  up;  the  last  case  was  struck  by  a  free  wheel. 
Two  workmen  got  under  and  over  the  belt,  one  workman  used 
a  stick,  which  was  caught  up  by  the  wheel  and  was  driven  through 
the  man's  body,  causing  death.  In  repairing  and  slipping  on  the 
driving-belt  twelve  further  accidents  were  caused  (mainly  by 
neglect  of  rules  on  the  part  of  the  operatives).  Two  of  these 
resulted  in  death;  one  of  the  men  was  caught  by  the  belt  and 
carried  clear  around;  the  other  was  caught  and  thrown  against  a 
bucket,  wounding  his  leg.  Erysipelas  set  in,  and  he  died. 

PRESSES:  37  accidents. 

These  were  mainly  with  eccentric  presses,  handscrews,  and 
burnishing-presses.  Twenty -three  accidents  occurred  with  presses 
in  full  operation.  Insufficient  safety  apparatus,  neglect  to  use 
same,  and  general  carelessness  were  the  usual  causes.  Eight 
cases  occurred  through  failure  to  turn  off  power  on  finishing  work. 
Six  more  accidents,  all  due  to  carelessness,  occurred  in  testing  and 
setting  up  presses. 

.HOISTING-MACHINERY:   90  accidents;   9  fatal.    Passenger  and  freight 

elevators:    7  accidents;    i  fatal. 

The  death  occurred  in  the  installation  of  a  freight  elevator. 
The  man  was  found  dead  in  the  shaft.  Presumably,  he  fell  down 
in  the  dark.  In  a  private  house  the  rope  of  an  elevator  broke, 
and,  as  the  safety  catch  was  out  of  gear,  the  lift  fell  with  the 
woman.  The  other  accidents  occurred  in  repairing  lifts  and 
shafts.  The  men  were  careless  in  handling  machinery. 

FALLS   FROM   LADDERS,   STAIRS,   SCAFFOLDING,   OUT   OF   SKYLIGHTS, 
INTO  PITS,  AND  ON  SOLID  GROUND:   145  accidents;    10  fatal. 
Falls  from  ladders:    24  accidents;    i  death. 
The  death  was  through  falling  from  ladder  while  stopping  holes 
in  a  wall.    The  man  slipped  from  the  rung.    This  was  the  cause 
also  of  a  number  of  other  accidents. 


ORGANIZED    EFFORT  231 

MISCELLANEOUS  ACCIDENTS:    237  accidents;    10  fatal. 

Splinters  flying  in  riveting,  chopping,  and  trimming  caused 
113  accidents  (mostly  to  the  eyes)  which  might  have  been  pre- 
vented by  wearing  goggles.  Eighteen  men  were  maimed  by 
chips  and  splinters  from  working  machinery;  3  more  by  woodwork 
and  pounding  limestone;  in  2  cases  an  eye  was  lost  through  flying 
splinters. 

ELECTRIC  WIRES:   2  accidents;   i  fatal. 

Both  accidents  occurred  in  connection  with  electric  cranes,  the 
workmen  coming  in  contact  with  the  wires.  The  death  was  from 
heart  failure.  The  victim  had  just  finished  repairing  a  traveling- 
crane  from  which  the  power  had  been  shut  off.  On  leaving  the 
crane  he  dropped  his  shoe  and  caught  at  the  wire  to  keep  his 
balance,  the  current,  meanwhile,  having  been  turned  on. 


PART    III 
INDUSTRIAL    HYGIENE 


XV 

COMMITTEES    ON    SANITATION 

MANY  among  the  largest  companies  and  corpora- 
tions of  to-day  have  accepted  the  idea  of  a  safety 
committee,  and  are  putting  it  into  successful  practice. 
Wage  -  earning  efficiency  is  impaired  just  as  directly 
by  unsanitary  conditions  as  by  unprotected  machines. 
The  problems  of  sanitation  are  so  important  in  the  main- 
tenance of  a  steady  and  regular  force  of  workers  that  these 
matters  should  fall  to  the  consideration  of  a  sanitary 
committee  consisting  of  physicians  and  specially  trained 
engineers. 

Some  time  ago  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  was 
confronted  by_epidemics  of  communicable  diseases,  occa- 
sioned by  impure  water,  insufficient  drainage  of  streets 
and  alleys,  and  the  inadequate  removal  of  garbage  and 
fecal  matter  throughout  their  mining-camps. 

Realizing  that  inattention  to  these  questions  entail 
large  losses,  a  sanitary  committee  was  organized.  In 
some  of  the  subsidiary  companies  this  work  varies  from 
a  consideration  of  these  matters  by  operating  men  in 
connection  with  their  regular  duties  to  well-defined 
organizations  under  the  charge  of  sanitary  engineers, 
and  including  periodical  inspections  and  regular  meetings 
for  the  discussion  of  problems  such  as  pi£ing  water  into 
dwelling-houses,  building  new  water-closets  and  rebuild- 
ing old  ones,  systems  of  sewage  disposal,  surface  drainage, 


236  SAFETY 

provision  of  garbage  cans  with  periodical  emptying  of 
Isame,  proper  disposal  of  refuse,  and  cleaning  up  streets, 
alleys,  and  yards  in  general. 

This  sanitary  committee  considers  of  greatest  impor- 
tance the  purification  of  drinking-water  and  the  disposal 
of  fecal  matter.  If  there  is  any  question  as  to  the  purity 
of  the  water-supply,  it  recommends  that  a  bacteriological 
analysis  tbe  made  at  least  once  a  year,  or  oftener  if 
necessary. 

Details  of  sanitary  installations  are  collected  from  each 
company  by  the  committee,  and  are  then  sent  to  the 
others,  with  a  view  to  assembling  the  best  thought  and 
looking  toward  an  ultimate  standardization. 

In  the  same  way,  confronted  by  the  unsanitary  condi- 
tions of  its  mining-camps,  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and 
Railway  Company  set  about  improving  them. 

As  these  camps  are  located  so  that  they  do  not  fall 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  municipality,-  all  work  relating 
to  health  and  sanitation  is  looked  after  by  the  committee 
organized  by  the  company,  under  the  direction  of  the 
president  himself.  The  vice-president,  general  superin- 
tendent of  mines,  superintendent  of  the  labor  depart- 
ment, and  the  sanitary  engineer  constitute  the  committee. 

Periodic  inspections  are  made  by  a  trained  sanitary  in- 
spector. Analysis  of  water  is  carried  on  by  a  chemist 
and  bacteriologist  at  the  company's  laboratory.  The 
reports  are  submitted  to  the  superintendent  of  labor, 
who,  upon  approval,  transmits  them  to  the  vice-president 
and  general  superintendent  of  the  department  in  ques- 
tion. Sanitary  recommendations  made  in  these  reports, 
upon  approval  by  the  executive  department,  are  executed 
by  the  general  superintendent. 

The  designing  of  filtration  -  plants,  systems  of  sewage 


COMMITTEES    ON    SANITATION        237 

disposal,  and  general  sanitary  considerations  come  within 
the  province  of  the  sanitary  engineer,  who  is  charged  with 
the  duty  of  preparing  plans  and  estimates  covering  the 
cost  of  installations.  It  is  his  duty  also  to  issue  rules  and 
regulations  covering  health  conditions,  instructions,  and 
methods  to  be  pursued  in  case  of  infectious  and  con- 
tagious diseases,  acting,  of  course,  in  conjunction  with  the 
medical  department  of  the  company. 

The  entire  organization  considering  matters  relating 
to  health  and  sanitation,  comes  under  the  Medical  Sani- 
tary Bureau,  and  is  divided  into  the  following  sections: 
statistics,  sanitation,  commissary  inspection,  epidemiology, 
health  and  food. 

The  chief  surgeon  is  responsible  for  the  sections  of  skin- 
diseases,  and  statistics,  including  costs,  exhibits,  and  com- 
missary selling-prices. 

The  section  of  sanitation  is  directed  by  the  sanitary 
engineer,  and  is  subdivided  into  considerations  of  water- 
supply,  disposal  of  feces,  garbage  and  surface  water,  weed- 
cutting,  hogs,  and  housing  conditions. 

The  commissary  includes  inspection  of  meat  and  vege- 
table markets  in  the  various  districts,  the  recommenda- 
tions made  being  carried  out  by  the  chief  of  commissaries. 

Ventilation,  heating,  hygiene,  milk,  and  disease  are 
matters  included  in  the  health  section,  under  the  direction 
of  the  division  doctor  and  division  nurses.  The  com- 
munity itself  is  reached  through  special  lectures. 

The  food  section,  under  the  direction  of  the  division 
nurse,  concerns  itself  with  instruction,  in  classes  and  at 
the  homes  of  the  miners,  in  the  proper  preparation  of 
simple  foods. 

Complete  inspections  of  the  various  camps  are  made  at 
regular  intervals  with  a  view  to  maintaining  the  sanitary 


238  SAFETY 

standards  adopted  by  the  company.  Particular  attention 
is  given  to  the  matter  of  closets,  and  the  infected  ground 
liberally  covered  with  lime.  The  requirements  relating  to 
the  frequent  collection  of  feces  are  rigidly  enforced.  In 
the  case  of  dry  closets,  fecal  matter  upon  the  ground  must 
be  removed  once  a  week. 

Experiments  made  with  closets  provided  with  sanitary 
cans,  which  can  be  easily  and  neatly  removed,  have 
proved  so  satisfactory  that  these  are  now  being  intro- 
duced in  nearly  all  of  the  camps.  The  closets  have  been 
built  or  remodeled  for  this  purpose  to  accommodate  a 
receptacle  16  inches  in  diameter  and  16  inches  high, 
the  standard  used  and  recommended  by  the  Health 
Department  of  the  government ;  but  further  experiments 
have  shown  that  a  receptacle  14  inches  in  diameter  and 
1 6  inches  high  is  better  adapted  to  the  requirements  of 
the  camps,  and  the  cans  are  being  made  accordingly. 
The  cans  must  be  water-tight,  the  body  made  of  one 
piece  with  hinged  handles  for  side-holds.^  Lids  and 
bottoms  should  be  stamped  of  one  piece,  the  lid  fitting 
over  the  outside  of  the  can,  and  the  bottom  concave. 

Feces  are  collected  in  a  sanitary  wagon  of  special  de- 
sign to  prevent  the  emission  of  obnoxious  effluvia  and  ex- 
posure to  insects.  This  sanitary  wagon  is  of  the  two- 
horse  type,  mounted  upon  platform  springs,  which  allows 
for  making  short  turns;  twenty-seven  compartments 
accommodate  the  sanitary  closet-cans  in  a  removable 
rack. 

The  mere  dumping  of  feces  on  the  ground  at  remote 
points  is  not  considered  proper  disposition,  as  this  method 
does  not  prevent  the  pollution  of  streams  or  access  by 
flies  to  the  infected  material,  with  the  possibility  of 
later  contamination  throughout  the  camp.  Where  the 


COMMITTEES    ON    SANITATION       239 

septic -tank  system  has  been  installed  fecal  matter  col- 
lected from  closets  is  conveyed  by  sanitary  wagon  to  the 
tank  at  some  distance  from  the  camp,  and  there  purified 
and  filtered.  In  other  camps,  pending  the  introduction 
of  the  septic-tank  system,  the  fecal  matter  is  mixed  with 
wood  or  coal  and  burned. 

Complete  camp  sanitation  calls  for  special  effort  in 
collecting  garbage  promptly.  Weekly  or  half-weekly  col- 
lections are  made,  the  material  being  taken  to  a  remote 
point  and  burned. 

Work  of  cleaning  yards,  streets,  and  alleys,  filling  in 
gulleys,  washouts,  and  stagnant  pools  is  also  vigorously 
prosecuted. 

A  healthful  water-supply  is,  of  course,  a  prime  require- 
ment. As  far  as  possible  all  drinking-water,  wells,  and 
springs  should  be  properly  guarded  from  sources  of  con- 
tamination. In  the  case  of  a  well  this  means  the  pro- 
vision of  a  proper  cover  to  prevent  the  infiltration  of 
polluted  surface  water. 

Springs  should  be  covered  with  an  apex  roof  made  of 
tongued  and  grooved  flooring-boards  properly  painted; 
wherever  possible,  provision  should  be  made  for  removal 
of  the  water  by  pipe  rather  than  by  buckets. 

Water  samples  from  all  drinking-water  sources  should 
be  systematically  collected  for  analysis,  with  a  view  to 
detecting  any  pollution  before  it  is  evidenced  by  sickness 
in  the  camp  drawing  its  water  from  that  source.  In  the 
case  of  the  company  before  mentioned  a  complete  equip- 
ment for  the  proper  analysis  of  water  has  been  installed 
at  the  company's  laboratory  with  a  capacity  of  about 
twenty-two  tests  a  week.  Both  chemical  and  bacterio- 
logical tests  are  made  of  the  water  and  records  of  same 
are  filed  for  future  reference.  These  records  will  ulti- 


240  SAFETY 

mately  include  maps  of  all  the  sources  of  water-supply 
for  the  various  camps.  The  tests  thus  far  have  resulted 
in  the  condemnation  and  destruction  of  numerous  wells 
and  springs  as  unsatisfactory  sources  of  supply,  while 
improvements  have  been  made  upon  others  to  prevent 
contamination. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  too  great  stress  upon  the  re- 
quisite purity  of  an  industrial  water-supply. 

The  bottles  used  for  samples  are  of  hard,  clear,  white 
glass,  provided  with  glass  stoppers  and  of  one -gallon 
capacity.  Before  using,  the  bottles  are  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  or  with  alka- 
line permanganate,  afterward  with  oxalic  and  sulphuric 
acids,  and  then  thoroughly  rinsed  and  drained.  When 
clean  the  stoppers  and  necks  of  the  bottles  are  protected 
by  tying  cloth  or  thick  paper  about  them. 

In  some  other  cases  observed  the  bottles  used  in  the 
bacteriological  examination  are  required  to  be  of  ico-c.c. 
capacity  and  provided  with  stoppers  of  the  mushroom 
type.  After  being  sterilized  with  dry  heat  for  one  hour 
at  1 60  C.,  or  in  an  autoclave  at  115  C.  for  fifteen  minutes, 
the  necks  are  covered  with  tinfoil  and  the  bottles  placed 
in  separate  tin  boxes. 

A  suitable  wooden  case  covered  and  locked  is  provid- 
ed for  transporting  samples.  Space  is  allowed  for  refrig- 
eration. When  carried  or  shipped,  the  case  must  be  kept 
locked,  and  only  unlocked  when  ready  to  take  the  sam- 
ples, which  must  be  delivered  at  the  laboratory  within 
eight  hours  from  the  time  they  are  taken. 

Samples  are  taken  with  the  greatest  care  to  prevent 
contamination.  The  stopper  is  removed  from  the  bottle 
only  in  the  act  of  filling,  and  then  quickly  replaced. 
The  fingers  .must  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  inside  of 


COMMITTEES    ON    SANITATION       241 

the  bottle  neck,  and  to  prevent  the  stopper  from  coming 
in  contact  with  other  substances  while  the  bottle  is  being 
filled  it  must  be  kept  in  the  stopper-holder  or  in  the  cover 
of  the  case. 

When  samples  are  taken  from  taps  or  faucets  the  cock 
must  be  opened  full  and  allowed  to  run  for  at  least  five 
minutes ;  when  the  water  is  taken  from  a  pump  it  must  be 
operated  for  at  least  five  minutes  in  order  to  empty 
all  pump  connections;  in  the  case  of  springs,  running 
streams,  with  still  waters,  the  sample  bottle  must  be 
plunged  beneath  the  surface,  with  the  mouth  toward  the 
current — if  there  be  one — and  great  care  taken  to  avoid 
collecting  sediment  from  the  bottom. 

Each  specimen  must  have  attached  to  it  a  card  or 
label  noting  the  name  of  the  works  or  department,  the 
designation  of  the  camp  or  quarters,  the  geographical 
location  of  the  source  of  the  water,  its  character,  the  date 
and  hour  upon  which  sample  is  taken,  the  turbidity, 
temperature,  and  odor  of  the  water,  and  the  condition 
of  the  source.  In  the  case  of  a  well  details  must  be  given 
as  to  whether  it  is  dug,  bored,  or  drilled,  also  its  cover  and 
drainage.  In  the  case  of  a  spring  the  label  must  note 
whether  it  is  a  boiling  or  seeping  spring,  character  and 
extent  of  its  protection,  depth,  method  of  removing  the 
supply  it  furnishes,  drainage  and  character  of  the  imme- 
diate surroundings,  number  of  houses  and  persons  sup- 
plied with  the  water.  In  each  case  the  card  must  be 
signed  by  the  person  taking  the  sample. 

In  addition  to  giving  written  instructions  to  the  men 
whose  duty  it  is  to  take  the  samples  practical  lessons  are 
also  given  them  in  the  field,  with  demonstrations  and 
explanations  of  the  reasons  for  the  rigid  enforcement  of 
requirements.  The  engineering  department  at  each 


242  SAFETY 

division  furnishes  a  blue -print  map  or  tracing  of  each 
operation  or  camp,  showing  the  exact  location  of  the 
water-supply  and  giving  to  each  well  or  spring  a  number, 
so  that  all  may  have  numerical  location. 

Thorough  and  frequent  inspections  are  made  of  the 
commissaries  belonging  to  the  company,  especially  the 
meat  markets,  where  the  sanitary  requirements  call  for 
the  exclusion  of  flies  from  the  stalls  by  the  use  of  screen- 
doors  closing  tightly  into  their  frames,  and  sufficient 
fly-paper  within  the  stalls  to  catch  any  flies  that  do 
gain  entrance.  The  wearing  of  clean  linen  and  neat 
clothing  is  enjoined  upon  meat  clerks;  adequate  lava- 
tories enable  them  to  keep  their  hands  thoroughly  clean. 
All  counters  are  furnished  with  marble  slabs. 

Cheese,  butter,  bread,  cake,  candies,  and  other  com- 
modities must  be  kept  in  closed  cases,  not  only  to  pre- 
vent contamination  by  flies,  but  also  rapid  drying  out  of 
the  goods.  Live  fowls  are  not  allowed  to  be  kept  within 
meat  stalls,  but  must  be  stored  in  separate  pens  outside 
the  commissary.  Vegetables  exposed  for  sale  must  be 
covered  with  netting  or  stored  in  bins  with  screened 
tops. 

To  prevent  the  stirring  up  of  dust,  which  would  work 
through  the  screens  around  the  stalls,  moistened  sawdust 
is  used  or  the  floor  is  well  sprinkled  before  sweeping. 
Commissary  -  keepers  are  instructed  to  prohibit  the 
indiscriminate  scattering  of  melon  rinds,  fruit  skins,  and 
any  other  organic  matter  which  might  attract  flies. 

In  camps  where  the  milk  is  supplied  by  a  neighbor- 
ing farmer  an  attempt  is  made,  when  necessary,  to  im- 
prove the  sanitary  conditions  in  connection  with  the 
care  of  cows  and  the  sale  of  milk.  Wherever  objection- 
able conditions  are  found  to  exist  the  dairyman  is  asked 


SANITARY   AND    WELL-ARRANGED    GENERAL    STORE    IN   A    MINING   TOWN. 
UNITED    STATES    STEEL    CORPORATION 


WORKMEN  S  DWELLINGS  IN  ONE  OF  THE  TOWNS  OF  THE  OLIVER  MINING  COMPANY 


COMMITTEES    ON    SANITATION       243 

to  correct  these  conditions  under  penalty  of  having  his 
products  barred  from  the  company  commissaries. 

Attention  is  often  necessarily  given  to  the  sources 
of  mosquito-breeding;  stagnant  pools  must  be  drained  or 
filmed  with  oil,  rain  barrels  kept  covered,  and  old  tin 
cans  and  bottles  removed  from  the  premises.  Weeds  must 
be  cut  at  regular  intervals  by  the  tenants;  where  this 
requirement  is  not  complied  with  the  work  is  done  by 
the  company  at  the  expense  of  the  tenant. 

Elimination  of  swine  in  various  camps  is  gradually 
being  carried  out,  not  only  because  they  are  potential 
carriers  of  disease,  but  also  on  the  ground  of  being  a 
public  nuisance.  Thirty  days'  notice  is  generally  given 
to  the  owners  of  such  stock  in  order  that  it  may  be 
disposed  of  to  the  best  advantage. 

With  a  view  to  preventing  epidemics  very  stringent 
regulations  are  issued  for  the  treatment  of  any  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  that  occur  in  the  camps  or  quarters.  At 
least  two  sets  of  specified  sanitary  equipment  and  dis- 
infecting agents  must  be  provided  and  kept  for  emergency 
use  at  each  camp. 

When  a  true  or  suspected  case  of  typhoid  fever  develops 
the  company  physician  must  immediately  notify  the 
sanitary  department  through  the  superintendent  of  the 
division  in  which  the  camp  is  located.  He  must  also 
prepare  two  disinfecting  solutions,  one  of  bleaching-powder 
and  the  other  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  and  see  that  a 
gallon  bottle  of  each  solution  is  kept  in  the  home  of  the 
patient. 

Detailed  instructions  are  required  to  be  posted  in  the 
sickroom  covering  the  bathing,  care  of  linen,  bed-linen, 
and  dishes  of  the  patient,  disinfection  and  destruction  of 

the  urine  and  bowel  discharges.     The  destruction  of  dis- 
17 


244  SAFETY 

charges  must  be  continued  for  weeks  after  the  patient 
has  recovered.  Detailed  directions  are  also  given  for  the 
complete  disinfection  of  the  sickroom  and  bed-clothing 
after  the  recovery  of  the  patient  in  order  to  minimize 
the  danger  of  subsequent  infection. 

When  typhoid  fever  is  present  all  other  cases  of  fever 
should  be  regarded  as  typhoid  until  proven  otherwise,  and 
the  destruction  of  discharges  from  the  patient  ordered 
as  in  known  cases. 


XVI 

INDUSTRIAL  POISONS 

IN  the  fight  against  industrial  disease  and  industrial 
poisoning  systematic  co-operation  of  all  concerned  is 
absolutely  necessary.  The  services  of  the  medical  man 
are  required  as  a  toxicologist,  as  a  hygienist,  as  a  practical 
physician,  but  particularly  as  workmen's  doctor;  the 
technical  man  is  called  upon  to  co-operate  as  constructive 
engineer,  as  manager  or  official  of  the  works,  as  factory 
or  insurance  inspector,  or  inspecting  engineer.  Of  utmost 
importance  for  the  success  of  protective  measures  is  the 
energetic  co-operation  of  employers  and  employees  and 
of  the  organizations  of  both. 

An  effective  measure  for  protection  against  occupa- 
tional danger  is  the  selection  of  workers  whose  physical 
qualifications  develop  high  resistance.  Only  those  of  the 
best  physique  should  be  employed  in  occupations  en- 
dangered by  poisons. 

A  selection  of  the  physically  strong  is  partially  made 
automatically,  inasmuch  as  the  weaker  ones  are  compelled 
by  repeated  illnesses  to  leave,  or  are  eliminated  in  con- 
sequence of  chronic  ill  health  and  shortened  life.     This 
natural  selection,  causing  not  only  social  and  physical  i 
misery,  but  also  unemployment,  disease,  and  early  death,  ! 
should  be  supplanted  by  a  selection  of  the  physically 
capable  through  an  expert  medical  examination  before 
they  are  accepted  for  employment. 


246  SAFETY 

Suitable  instruction  should  be  given  in  schools  as  to 
the  dangers  connected  with  the  various  occupations;  and 
there  should  be  medical  examination  of  pupils,  particu- 
larly of  scholars  entering  into  industrial  trade  -  schools, 
with  a  view  to  their  physical  suitability  for  the  occupation 
selected. 

As  before  mentioned,  those  persons  naturally  weak 
should  be  entirely  excluded  from  work  offering  any  pos- 
sibility of  poisoning.  It  is  advisable,  further,  not  to  ex- 
pose to  this  danger  for  too  long  a  time  workers  who  are 
accepted  for  such  employment.  They  should  be  granted, 
apart  from  other  protective  measures,  a  shorter  working 
period  and  frequent  recesses. 

Change  of  work — that  is,  change  from  injurious  employ- 
ment to  work  in  the  open  air — should  occur  at  periodic 
intervals.  These  changes  are  particularly  recommended 
where  industrial  poisoning  may  result  from  the  gradual 
absorption  of  poison;  during  the  period  when  the  dan- 
gerous substance  is  not  handled  the  organism  has  time 
to  eliminate  the  stored  toxins,  thereby  avoiding  any 
serious  results. 

By  means  of  rational  change  of  work  in  dangerous 
employments  schooled  and  strong  regular  workers  are 
obtained  who  are  acquainted  with  the  danger  and  know 
how  to  meet  it.  On  the  other  hand,  an  enforced  change 
of  work,  due  to  frequent  illness  among  employees,  causes 
a  further  increase  in  the  frequency  of  the  disease,  as  the 
new-comers,  not  being  skilled,  are  more  exposed  to  the 
danger.  The  prosperity  of  an  industry  often  materially 
depends  on  the  existence  of  a  trained  set  of  workers.  A 
change  of  work  rather  than  a  change  of  workers  is, 
therefore,  particularly  desirable  in  establishments  where 
there  is  great  danger  of  poisoning.  Employees  in  these 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  247 

places  should  be  medically  examined  not  only  when 
accepted  for  employment,  but  also  at  regular  periods 
afterward.  In  this  way  the  physically  unfit  may  be 
eliminated  and  handed  over  for  treatment. 

Records  should  be  kept  of  the  workers  exposed  to  dan- 
ger of  poisoning,  their  state  of  health,  the  result  of  the 
periodic  medical  examinations,  and  of  the  diseases,  their 
duration,  symptoms,  treatment,  and  cure.  In  many 
countries  where  the  keeping  of  such  records  is  required 
by  law  it  has  been  found  of  great  advantage  to  the 
employers. 

The  health  of  the  workers  should  be  a  matter  of  con- 
stant supervision  by  inspectors,  foremen,  or  anybody  able 
to  recognize  the  first  signs  of  poisoning,  capable  of  ren- 
dering first-aid  treatment  and  of  supervising  proper  pre- 
cautionary measures. 

In  addition  to  the  customary  first-aid  equipment 
oxygen  apparatus  is  especially  useful.  Helmets  and 
respirators  should  always  be  at  hand  for  members  of  the 
rescue  corps.  These  should  never  enter  premises,  ap- 
paratus, gas-tanks,  drains,  and  similar  places  in  which 
poisoning  has  occurred,  or  in  which  there  is  the  probability 
of  a  poisonous  atmosphere,  or  into  which  poisonous  gases 
and  vapors  may  enter,  without  protection.  Provision 
should  also  be  made  for  giving  trained  medical  aid  promptly. 

Workers  who  handle  poisons  should  be  instructed  with 
regard  to  the  character  and  action  of  these  substances, 
the  initial  symptoms,  and,  particularly,  all  the  means 
and  measures  necessary  for  rendering  first  aid  to  their 
fellows.  The  best  hygienic  provisions,  protective  de- 
vices and  measures  are  valueless  when  the  worker  does 
not  use  and  follow  them.  Not  only  should  instruction 
be  given  with  regard  to  the  object  and  use  of  devices,  but 


248  SAFETY 

workers  should  be  urged  and,  if  necessary,  compelled  to 
use  them. 

Instruction  to  workers,  especially  those  just  entering 
dangerous  employment,  may  be  given  in  various  ways. 
Apart  from  lectures  on  the  subject  concise  instruction 
should  be  available  in  the  form  of  notices  and  illustrated 
placards  displayed  in  the  workrooms  or  handed  out  as 
leaflets.  Official  leaflets  are  drawn  up  and  published  by 
some  governmental  departments,  the  employers  being 
obliged  to  make  known  and  distribute  the  same. 

Of  individual  protective  measures,  those  have  the 
greatest  importance  which,  as  far  as  possible,  prevent 
poison  from  contact  with  any  portion  of  the  body  and  from 
inhalation.  If  this  is  not  completely  possible,  however, 
the  poison  should  be  quickly  removed,  so  that  it  shall  not 
penetrate  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Such  pro- 
tection can  be  secured  by  means  of  suitable  equipment  for 
the  worker,  as,  for  instance,  proper  clothing,  protectors 
for  the  mouth  and  nose,  and  scrupulous  cleanliness  when 
eating.  It  cannot  be  sufficiently  emphasized  that  only 
these  measures  afford  effective  protection  against  in- 
dustrial poisoning,  particularly  against  those  having  a 
lingering  chronic  action. 

The  importance  of  wearing  suitable  clothing  on  the 
premises  should  be  strongly  impressed  upon  workers  in 
dangerous  trades.  The  ordinary  or  street-clothes  should 
be  taken  off  and  replaced  by  special  suits  to  be  worn  dur- 
ing working-hours.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  a  working-suit, 
jacket,  or  apron  to  be  put  on  over  the  ordinary  clothing. 
The  working-suit  should  be  taken  off  before  the  midday 
meal  and  before  leaving  the  factory  and  exchanged  for 
the  street  -  clothes.  Working  -  garments  should  be  cut 
perfectly  plain,  without  folds  or  pockets,  and  should  be 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  249 

made  of  strong,  smooth,  washable  materials.  By  remov- 
ing the  working-clothes  before  meals  and  before  leaving 
the  factory  the  poison  is  not  carried  into  lunchrooms  or 
into  the  homes  of  the  workers. 

Direct  contact  with  poisonous  substances  should  be 
avoided  as  far  as  possible.  If,  however,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  workman  to  handle  .poisonous  materials,  moisten 
or  dust  his  hands  with  them,  gloves  should  be  worn. 
This  is  particularly  necessary  when  the  poison  is  of  such 
character  as  to  easily  enter  the  skin,  producing  skin- 
diseases,  sores,  and  the  like.  When  there  is  danger  that 
poisonous  substances  might  come  in  contact  with  the 
body  it  is  wise  to  order  that  extra  strong  and  impermeable 
working-garments  be  worn.  When  dealing  with  dusty, 
poisonous  materials  the  workman  should  be  provided 
with  a  suitable  head-dress,  as  poisonous  dust  readily 
adheres  to  hair  and  scalp. 

Employers  should  see  the  advantages  of  providing  and 
maintaining  suitable  working-clothes  for  employees,  where 
there  is  danger  of  poisoning.  But,  as  before  mentioned, 
the  mere  provision  is  not  enough;  employees  must  be  com- 
pelled to  wear  them  if  the  benefits  are  to  be  at  all  apparent. 

Of  very  great  importance  is  the  provision  of  rooms  for 
changing  clothing,  with  adequate  washing  facilities  and 
lockers  for  holding  both  the  street  and  working  clothes. 
Each  worker  should  have  an  appointed  washing-place 
and  a  locker  for  his  individual  use.  The  best  type  of 
locker  is  one  divided  by  a  partition  into  two  separate 
compartments  closed  by  separate  doors,  one  compart- 
ment for  the  working-clothes  and  the  other  for  street- 
garments.  This  separation  of  the  clothing  worn  inside 
and  outside  the  premises  is  of  importance  in  factories 
dealing  with  poisonous  materials. 


250.  SAFETY 

Direct  protection  for  the  nasal  passages  is  also  neces- 
sary. For  this  purpose  specially  designed  respiratory 
apparatus  should  be  worn.  Sometimes  simply  sponges 
or  rags  tied  in  front  of  the  mouth  or  nose  are  sufficient. 
Generally,  however,  conditions  require  more  complicated 
devices.  Some  of  these  surround  only  the  mouth  and 
nose;  others,  the  entire  face,  like  a  mask;  and  there  are 
still  other  types,  as  a  helmet,  which  take  in  the  entire  head. 
These  devices  are  all  fitted  closely  by  means  of  India- 
rubber  mounts,  and  possess  a  breathing-aperture  closed, 
generally,  by  two  parallel  grids  of  wire  gauze,  between 
which  is  a  layer  of  cotton  wool,  through  which  respiration 
takes  place.  The  cotton  wool  acts  as  a  filter  and  retains 
all  the  dust.  The  outer  grid  either  is  removable  or  can  be 
turned  on  a  hinge  so  that  the  wool  can  be  taken  out  and 
replaced  by  a  fresh  supply.  Whether  the  mask  sur- 
rounds only  the  mouth  and  nose  of  the  wearer  or  the 
entire  face  and  head,  it  should  be  constructed  of  material 
impermeable  to  air  and  provided  with  protected  openings 
for  the  eyes  when  the  type  of  protection  renders  it  neces- 
sary. 

There  could  be  mentioned  many  different  types  of 
respirators;  but  in  selecting  the  model  best  suited  to 
any  particular  need,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  to  be 
effective,  respiration  must  not  be  obstructed,  and  the 
apparatus  should  be  fitted  with  a  valve  to  close  auto- 
matically when  inhaling  and  allow  the  air  to  escape  un- 
impeded when  exhaling  without  passing  through  the 
filter.  Many  respiratory  devices  do  not  fulfil  these  re- 
quirements, or  do  so  only  imperfectly.  In  course  of  time 
the  pressure  of  the  respirator  is  generally  found  to  be 
troublesome,  and  often  causes  the  face  to  become  un- 
bearably hot.  Undoubtedly,  breathing  is  rendered  more 


INDIVIDUAL  RESPIRATORS  AND  CHECKROOM  AT  THE  NATIONAL  LEAD 
COMPANY'S  PLANT 


INDIVIDUAL    LOCKERS    AND    BASINS    IN    ONE  OF  THE  NATIONAL   LEAD  COMPANY'S 

WASHROOMS 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  251 

difficult  through  a  respirator,  but  this  can  be  largely 
minimized  by  choosing  a  proper  type.  Discomfort  is 
particularly  felt  when,  for  protection  against  poisonous 
gases,  sponges  or  rags  soaked  in  liquids  are  employed  as 
respirators. 

In  'general,  respirators  should  be  used  merely  as  auxil- 
iary means  of  protection.  When  a  worker  must  tempo- 
rarily be  in  an  atmosphere  filled  with  poisonous  dust,  the 
wearing  of  respiratory  apparatus,  preferably  covering  the 
entire  head,  is  recommended.  Respirators  offer  no,  or 
very  imperfect,  protection  against  noxious  gases  and 
vapors,  and  respirators  saturated  with  neutralizing  liquids 
can  be  borne  only  for  a  short  time. 

When  rooms  filled  with  poisonous  gases  must  be  en- 
tered, the  workman  should  carry  with  him  the  requisite 
stock  of  oxygen  in  a  suitable  apparatus,  the  oxygen  in 
such  apparatus  being  supplied  to  the  helmet  worn  by  the 
workman  freely  enough,  so  that  his  respiration  is  com- 
pletely independent  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

Workers  should  be  instructed  about  the  importance  of 
cleanliness.  When  dusty  or  vaporous  materials  are  em- 
ployed, the  hands  and  mouth  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
before  meals  and  when  leaving  the  factory.  Factory 
regulations  should  make  compulsory  frequent  washing, 
as  well  as  the  removal  of  working-clothes  before  meals 
and  before  leaving  the  factory  in  the  evening. 

Washing  and  bathing  should  take  place  during  working- 
hours,  and  without  any  loss  of  time  and  wages  to  the  em- 
ployees. Certain  hours  should  be  definitely  fixed  by  the 
management  during  which  the  workmen  may  bathe  in 
turn. 

Eating,  drinking,  smoking,  and  chewing  tobacco  in 
premises  endangered  by  impure  air  should  be  prohibited. 


252  SAFETY 

If  possible,  clean  dining-rooms  should  be  so  constructed 
that  the  workers  may  enter  them  only  through  the 
changing-rooms  and  washrooms.  In  these  rooms  work- 
ers should  eat  the  food  brought  with  them  or  prepared  in 
the  factory  kitchen.  When  no  provision  is  made  for 
dining-rooms,  the  workmen  usually  eat  their  meals  in  the 
workrooms,  sometimes  in  the  midst  of  unhealthful  dusts 
\  and  poisons.  By  providing  separate  lunchrooms  it  is 
possible  to  enforce  the  rule  that  working-clothes  shall  be 
\  changed  before  eating. 

The  old  saying,  " Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness," 
holds  especially  good  with  regard  to  the  welfare  of  work- 
men in  factories  endangered  by  poisonous  materials.  In 
numerous  large  industries  the  demands  of  cleanliness  are 
now  being  met  by  the  provision  of  bathing  establishments 
for  the  employees. 

For  cleansing  the  hands,  face,  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  exposed  to  dust  and  dirt,  simple  individual  washing- 
basins  are  recommended;  washing-arrangements  used  by 
several  persons,  such  as  troughs  and  channels,  are  entirely 
unsuitable.  The  basins,  to  be  easily  cleaned,  must  be 
made  of  porcelain  or  glazed  enamel.  The  dirty  water 
must  readily  flow  from  them;  for  this  reason  experience 
has  proved  tilting-basins  to  be  best. 

In  all  washing-arrangements,  including  baths  for  the 
workmen,  an  adequate  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water 
must  be  available.  "Mixing-cocks"  should  be  provided, 
in  order  that  the  desired  temperature  may  be  quickly 
obtained. 

Workmen's  baths  can  be  arranged  as  shower-baths, 
full  baths,  or  swimming-baths.  Some  establishments  are 
furnished  with  all  these  types. 

The  shower-bath  has  many  advantages,  and,  therefore, 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  253 

is  most  frequently  used  for  workmen's  baths.  The  cost 
of  providing  triis  type  is  relatively  small,  as  the  apparatus 
is  exceedingly  simple.  For  this  reason  it  is  possible  for 
the  employer  to  place  the  baths  at  the  disposal  of  the 
workmen  free  of  charge.  The  bather  is  quickly  and 
thoroughly  cleansed.  Shower-baths  are  also  more  easily 
maintained  in  good  condition.  When  this  type  is  in- 
stalled it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  double  compartments 
as  bathing  and  dressing  rooms.  The  walls  as  well  as 
the  floor  of  the  compartments  should  be  constructed  of 
smooth,  impervious  materials.  In  the  bathing-compart- 
ment the  floor  should  slope  down  toward  a  trough  from 
which  the  water  may  flow  away.  It  is  better  to  control 
the  flow  of  water  by  means  of  a  chain  or  other  device 
than  to  have  the  water  start  automatically  on  entering 
the  bath. 

Suitable  food  for  the  workers  is  well-nigh  essential  for 
protection  against  industrial  poisoning.  Well-fed,  strong 
workers  are  better  able  to  resist  the  action  of  poisons; 
while  badly  fed  workers,  who  generally  surfer  from  di- 
gestive disturbances,  are  very  sensitive  to  toxic  influ- 
ences. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  can  be  checked  by  provision  of  suitable  beverages. 
In  most  cases  of  industrial  poisoning  the  combination 
with  chronic  alcoholism  has  most  serious  consequences. 
Owing  to  the  pernicious  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  kidneys, 
liver,  digestive  organs,  nervous  system,  and  assimilation 
of  food,  a  number  of  points  of  low  resistance  are  created 
for  attack  by  the  poison.  Not  only  good  drinking-water, 
but  in  certain  cases  coffee,  tea,  fruit  syrups,  and  the  like 
should  be  furnished  the  workers;  milk  is  especially  to  be 
recommended.  In  many  industries  where  the  danger 


254  SAFETY 

of  poisoning  is  great — notably  of  lead-poisoning — milk  is 
supplied  to  the  workers  free  of  charge. 

Every  measure  for  strengthening  workmen  physically 
and  increasing  their  general  resistance  to  disease  must 
be  included  in  protective  measures.  Above  all  should 
be  mentioned  all  movements  whose  purpose  is  to  keep 
the  workers  as  much  as  possible  in  the  fresh  air  when  not 
at  work,  to  cultivate  sport,  and  to  strengthen  the  body. 
Much  has  already  been  accomplished  in  this  respect  by 
certain  employers  and  by  the  workmen  themselves  in 
their  various  athletic  organizations. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  industrialist  is  more  than 
recouped  for  the  comparatively  small  initial  expense  of 
making  the  working-place  as  healthy  as  possible  in  ad- 
vance, and  using  every  precaution  to  maintain  the  health 
of  the  workers  at  the  highest  point  of  efficiency. 

The  greatest  danger  for  the  workman  is  occasioned  by 
those  poisonous  substances  which,  by  virtue  of  their 
dusty  nature,  their  volatility,  or  gaseous  form,  render  it 
impossible  to  keep  the  atmosphere  of  the  workroom 
pure.  Among  the  measures  of  protection  the  avoidance 
and  removal  of  poisonous  air  plays  the  greatest  part. 

When  the  spread  of  impurities  into  the  atmosphere  of 
the  factory  cannot  be  entirely  avoided,  these  must  be 
overcome  by  introducing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh 
air.  In  addition,  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  prevent 
the  poisonous  materials  in  the  air  from  collecting  and 
settling. 

As  far  as  possible  those  processes  should  be  avoided 
in  which  poisonous  materials  are  employed  and  by  which 
the  air  is  rendered  impure.  A  substitution  of  less  danger- 
ous~methods  is  sometimes  possible  without  added  expense. 
International  prohibition  of  certain  modes  of  production 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  255 

has  been  under  consideration,  and  in  part  carried  out. 
To  paralyze  branches  of  industry  by  prohibitory  measures 
works,  of  course,  economic  damage,  not  only  to  employers, 
but  also  to  the  employed  and  the  community  in  general. 
Economic  considerations  must  be  weighed  before  carry- 
ing into  effect  prohibitory  measures.  If  effective  sub- 
stitutes for  injurious  methods  can  be  found,  ways  and 
means  can  also  be  developed  to  effect  the  change  in  pro- 
duction. 

For  instance,  the  dangerous  development  of  dust  can 
be  avoided  by  employing  "wet"  methods  when  the 
product  or  material  admits  of  it,  such  as  the  moist  clean- 
ing of  white-lead  chambers  and  wet  dressing  in  smelting- 
works.  Injurious  gases  and  vapors  can  be  avoided  in 
glass-silvering  by  substituting  the  safer  process  for 
mercury  amalgamation;  also  in  fire-gilding,  where  the 
articles  to  be  gilded  are  coated  with  mercury  amalgam 
and  the  mercury  is  vaporized;  in  the  manufacture  of 
incandescent  lamps,  by  replacing  the  mercury  air-pumps 
and  switches  by  apparatus  without  mercury ;  in  the  manu- 
facture of  matches,  by  using  the  red  instead  of  the  poison- 
ous white  phosphorus;  in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  by 
soaking  rabbit-skins  in  a  solution  free  from  mercury  salts. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  individual,  the  most  important 
factory  protective  measure  against  industrial  poisoning  is 
cleanliness — that  is,  in  keeping  the  rooms  and  air  of  the 
factory  free  from  impurities.  Workrooms  should  be  so 
constructed  and  arranged  that  they  and  the  air  con- 
tained in  them  can  be  easily  kept  clean. 

Of  course,  light,  high  workrooms  having  jointless — 
preferably  water-proof  floors — are  the  best.  The  walls 
should  be  coated  with  a  light-colored  washable  paint. 
Angles  and  corners  should  be  avoided,  just  as  in  hospital 


256  SAFETY 

construction.  The  rooms  should  be  frequently  and  care- 
fully cleaned  by  washing  or,  better  yet,  by  the  more  recent 
vacuum  method.  Impregnating  the  floor  with  oil  is 
recommended  in  some  cases.  But  this  method  of  binding 
dust  is  not  its  removal,  and  where  the  action  of  the  oil 
is  relied  upon  regular  cleaning  is  more  likely  to  be 
neglected. 

For  keeping  the  air  of  a  factory  pure  there  must  be 
sufficient  air  space  and  suitable  change  of  the  air  in  this 
space.  These  measures  are  of  far  more  importance  than 
may  seem  at  first  glance,  as  almost  all  the  throat  and 
lung  disorders  to  which  workmen  are  subject  are  in  many 
cases  directly  related  to  the  amount  of  oxygen  contained 
in  the  air  in  which  they  work. 

With  regard  to  the  cubic  volume  of  fresh  air  allowed  to 
each  workman,  the  minimum  amount  has  been  legally 
fixed  in  many  states  and  countries,  but  it  has  been  found 
that  when  three  or  four  times  this  quantity  is  provided 
the  efficiency  of  each  individual  worker  is  raised  to  a  point 
that  far  offsets  any  charge  on  the  rental  account. 

Only  rarely  will  the  natural  change  of  air  in  workshops— 
that  is,  through  the  pores  of  the  building-material,  cracks, 
joints  of  floors,  through  .windows  and  doors — provide  the 
necessary  renewal.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  air  is 
renewed  only  once  by  natural  ventilation  in  about  one 
to  two  hours,  so  that  in  keeping  employees  up  to  "  concert 
pitch"  the  need  of  artificial  ventilation  is  apparent. 

The  simplest  method  of  airing  rooms  is  by  opening 
doors  and  windows — so-called  draught  ventilation.  Dur- 
ing work-hours,  however,  such  ventilation  causes  annoy- 
ance, distraction,  or  indisposition,  due  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  controlling  the  temperature  accurately  during 
winter  and  summer.  By  providing  ventilator  windows 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  257 

these  defects  may  be  obviated  and  the  windows  used  for 
permanent  ventilation. 

This  method  calls  for  the  upper  section  of  the  window 
being  made  to  rotate  about  a  horizontal  axle,  so  that  it 
can  be  opened  to  the  desired  extent  by  means  of  an 
adjustable  lever.  Such  arrangement,  however,  only 
proves  satisfactory  in  summer. 

Artificial  ventilation  is  best  provided  by  means  of 
special  openings  and  flues,  arranged  at  the  part  of  the 
room  to  be  ventilated,  and  by  means  of  which  fresh  air 
is  introduced  or  the  impure  air  drawn  away.  The  former 
method  is  defined  as  pulsion,  and  the  latter  as  aspiratory 
ventilation. 

The  difference  in  temperature  between  outer  and  inner 
air  which  causes  an  upward  force  can  be  artificially  in- 
creased by  utilizing  the  action  of  the  wind,  by  heating 
the  air  in  the  ventilation  flues,  by  mechanical  force, 
blowers,  and  so  on.  When  the  force  of  the  wind  is  used 
the  openings  of  the  ventilation  flues  should  be  changed 
for  summer  and  winter  ventilation.  To  increase  the 
current  of  air  in  the  ventilation  flues  the  outside  sections 
should  be  provided  with  top  pieces — that  is,  suction  and 
pressure  head-pieces. 

For  increasing  the  draught  the  air  may  be  artificially 
warmed  by  providing  flames  or  stoves  in  the  flues.  The 
action  of  ventilating-flues  is  materially  aided  if  they  are 
introduced  into  existing  chimneys  and  smokestacks. 
In  some  cases  vertical  ventilating-shafts  are  built  into  the 
building,  or  ventilating-chimneys,  usually  with  top  pieces, 
are  extended  above  the  roof. 

For  factories  endangered  by  poisons,  either  in  gaseous 
or  dust  form,  ventilation  is  best  secured  by  means  of 
mechanical  force  or  blowers.  Where  other  driving-forces 


258  SAFETY 

are  employed  and  the  draught  is  dependent  on  such 
factors  as  the  wind  or  outside  air,  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
secure  proper  regulation.  This,  however,  is  fully  secured 
when  ventilating  with  mechanical  power,  as  the  quantity 
of  air  supplied  or  drawn  away  by  the  ventilator  may  be 
mathematically  calculated  and  adjusted  to  the  power 
employed.  The  ventilating-plant,  its  form,  mechanical 
equipment,  consumption  of  power,  and  dimensions,  de- 
pend, of  course,  on  the  requirements.  But  sufficient  at- 
tention should  be  given  the  subject  to  obviate  all  waste 
of  capital  and  energy.  As  correct  design  and  arrange- 
ment determine  the  action,  result,  and  fate  of  the  plant, 
the  services  of  an  expert  are  required.  This  is  particu- 
larly so  when  problems  of  ventilation  in  factories  endan- 
gered by  poisons  must  be  solved. 

When  steam  jet  blowers  are  employed  a  jet  of  steam 
or  compressed  air  is  introduced  into  the  flues  through  a 
nozzle,  whereby  a  powerful  suction  action  is  produced. 
This  action  can  be  regulated  by  the  action  of  the  jet. 

Injectors  are  recommended  for  removing  acid  vapors 
which  corrode  machinery,  for  exhausting  explosive  mix- 
tures of  dust,  or  in  any  case  where  the  employment  of 
other  ventilators  is  not  advisable  and  where  there  is 
sufficient  excess  steam,  compressed  air,  or  water  for  the 
motive  power. 

Rotary  blowers  are  substantially  wheels  having  blade- 
like  flat  spokes.  They  are  inserted  at  various  places 
in  the  ventilation  flues  according  to  the  movement  of  air 
intended,  and  depend  for  their  action  on  the  fan  principle. 

According  to  the  mode  of  construction,  ventilators  are 
differentiated  into  screw  and  centrifugal  ventilators ;  and 
according  to  their  action,  into  low,  medium,  and  high 
pressure  ventilators.  They  can  be  driven  by  belts,  water, 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  259 

steam,  or,  as  is  now  very  common,  by  electric  power,  in 
which  case  they  may  be  coupled  directly  to  the  motor. 

Screw-blowers,  like  ships'  propellers,  are  almost  always 
constructed  of  iron,  and  generally  have  spiral  blades — 
sometimes  only  four  light  ones — inserted  by  means  of 
frames,  transversely,  in  the  ventilation  flue,  on  whose 
column  of  air  they  are  to  exercise  a  suction  or  pressure 
action.  The  air  is  driven  in  the  direction  of  the  axle  of 
the  ventilator,  and  generally  it  is  possible  by  reversing 
the  ventilator  to  exhaust  or  drive  the  air  as  desired. 
Such  fans  produce  a  low  pressure,  and  are  therefore  called 
low-pressure  ventilators.  The  current  of  air  produced 
by  them  has  a  relatively  low  velocity,  but  when  suitably 
designed  such  ventilators  can  move  large  quantities  of 
air,  and  are  particularly  suitable  for  bringing  about  a 
general  change  of  air  within  the  workroom. 

Centrifugal  blowers  are  provided  with  cases  inserted 
in  the  ventilating-flue  in  such  manner  that  the  air  enters 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  axle  and  passes  between 
numerous  straight  radial  spokes,  by  whose  rapid  rotation 
the  air  is  thrown  to  the  periphery,  where  the  outlet  is 
located  and  from  which  the  ventilating-flue  continues. 
As  the  speed  of  rotation  is  great,  considerable  velocity 
and  high  pressure  are  imparted  to  the  current  of  air. 
When  the  pressure  is  at  120  mm.  centrifugal  blowers  are 
called  medium-pressure  blowers;  when  higher  they  are 
called  high-pressure.  In  the  former  a  casing  of  sheet  iron 
suffices,  but  in  the  latter  cast-iron  cases  are  usually 
required. 

Medium-pressure  centrifugal  ventilators  are  employed 
for  local  ventilation — that  is,  removing  impure  air  from 
its  point  of  original  high  pressure  for  technical  purposes; 

for  example,  conveying  a  current  of  gas  at  high  pressure. 
18 


26o  SAFETY 

Shutting  off  the  rooms  affected  by  impure  air  or  danger 
of  gases  from  the  remaining  sections  of  a  factory  facil- 
itates measures  for  limiting  and  combating  the  danger. 
This  plan,  however,  which  protects  only  the  workers  not 
directly  occupied  with  the  poison  cannot  be  considered 
sufficient.  The  workman  endangered  must  also  be  pro- 
tected and  enabled  to  work  at  his  fullest  efficiency.  Com- 
pletely inclosing  apparatus  and  processes  producing 
poisonous  dusts  and  gases  is  possible  only  when  it  is  not 
necessary  to  reach  the  apparatus  or  when  the  work  may 
be  carried  on  by  mechanical  means. 

When,  however,  such  arrangement  is  not  possible  the 
impurities  must  be  removed  at  their  source.  As  far  as 
the  work  permits,  the  source  of  origin  of  the  impure  air 
should  be  shut  off  by  means  of  boarding  or  sheet-metal 
partitions,  so  that  only  the  working-place  remains  ac- 
cessible. If  this  is  impossible  a  funnel  must  be  arranged 
in  immediate  proximity  to  the  source  of  the  impurities; 
this  boarding,  casing,  or  funnel,  of  course,  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  ventilating-pipe  in  which  the  necessary 
draught  is  produced  to  carry  away  the  dust  or  vapors. 
In  the  case  of  only  slight  development  of  dust,  gases,  or 
vapors,  flues  above  the  boiler,  or  chimney  draughts,  may 
suffice  for  successful  local  ventilation;  but  generally  force 
must  act  on  the  ventilation  tube  to  obtain  the  desired 
result.  Medium -pressure  blowers  are  most  frequently 
used  as  exhausters. 

In  large  factories,  or  in  cases  where  exhaust  is  found  to 
be  necessary  at  many  points,  it  is  profitable  to  provide 
a  centralized  exhaust-plant.  Such  a  plant  consists  in  the 
opening  of  all  the  pipes  leading  away  impure  air  into 
one  common  flue  in  which  the  necessary  draught  is  main- 
tained by  the  work  of  one  or  more  powerful  exhausters 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  261 

connected  with  the  flue.  When  the  ventilating-flues  are 
located  near  the  floor,  it  is  wise  to  provide  outlets  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  sweepings.  Then,  when  clean- 
ing, if  the  dust  is  swept  near  these  outlets  it  is  drawn  off. 

In  removing  impurities  at  their  source  the  apparatus 
must  act  so  that  the  current  of  air  at  the  place  of  work 
moves  away  from  the  worker.  It  is  preferable  to  draw 
dusts  or  gases  vertically  downward  and,  laterally,  from 
the  workman  into  the  pipe  or  flue  along  the  floor. 

In  calculating  the  amount  lost  every  year  through  sick- 
ness and  reduced  speed  on  the  part  of  the  operator,  it  is 
well  to  consider  this  seemingly  minor  point :  whether  the 
poison-laden  air  is  drawn  away  from  the  employee  or 
flows  past  his  nose  and  mouth. 

The  dimensions  of  the  pipes  and  flues  must  accord  with 
the  force  and  nature  of  the  exhausts.  The  system  of 
pipes  should  offer  as  little  resistance  as  possible  to  the 
passage  of  air;  this  may  be  accomplished  by  eliminating 
sharp  bends  in  the  piping,  and  by  having  them  always 
open  into  the  main  flue  at  as  obtuse  an  angle  as  possible. 

Apparatus  generating  poisonous  dusts  and  gases,  wher- 
ever possible,  should  be  inclosed  and  constructed  in  such 
a  way  that  its  action  and  ventilation  are  automatic. 

With  regard  to  the  development  of  dust,  the  following 
processes  must  be  considered:  disintegrating  apparatus 
of  every  kind,  stone-breaking,  and  mills.  In  general, 
these  can  be  provided  with  closed  and  ventilated  cases. 
Ball -mills  can  always  be  completely  inclosed,  as  they 
consist  only  of  a  rotating  iron  cylinder  in  which  the  steel 
balls  are  thrown  to  and  fro,  crushing  the  material.  Poison- 
ous, dusty  materials — i.  e.,  white  lead,  gypsum,  cement, 
and  others  of  like  nature — can  be  transported  by  convey- 
ors, or  pneumatically,  in  closed  piping. 


262  SAFETY 

The  dust  created  in  packing  certain  materials  can  be 
almost  completely  avoided  by  using  ventilated  packing- 
machines. 

More  difficult  is  the  confinement  of  dust  when  strewing, 
sifting,  and  mixing  materials,  because  hand- work  general- 
ly must  be  employed. 

It  is  sometimes  possible  to  inclose  even  this  source  of 
dust,  however,  by  using  boxes  with  armholes  and  having 
the  top  wall  of  glass.  Ventilated  tables  can  also  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  having  wire  tops  and  connected  by  a 
funnel  underneath  with  the  exhaust-pipe.  Such  tables 
may  be  installed  to  advantage  where  the  poisonous  dust 
is  a  waste  product,  as,  for  example,  glazing  with  lead  or 
inspecting  porcelain  products. 

When  grinding,  polishing,  or  similarly  treating  materials 
from  which  poisonous  dusts  are  given  off,  wheels  should 
be  hooded  as  far  as  possible  and  connected  with  the 
exhaust  system. 

For  preventing  the  spread  of  noxious  gases  and  vapors, 
distillation  and  furnace-plants  should  be  as  tight  as  pos- 
sible. It  is  better  to  have  fans  act  directly  on  the  fur- 
nace or  distilling-apparatus,  so  that  their  walls  are  re- 
lieved from  the  pressure  of  the  gases  generated.  In 
this  way  a  small  fall  of  pressure  is  produced  within, 
which  provides  for  their  non-escape.  Mixing-apparatus 
should  be  provided  with  mechanical  stirrers,  inclosed 
and  well  ventilated.  The  same  principle  applies  to 
dryers. 

Of  great  importance  is  the  question  of  the  ultimate 
disposal  of  the  poisonous  dusts,  gases,  and  vapors  removed 
from  workshops  and  factories.  When  these  are  of  non- 
rising  character  and  large  in  volume,  consideration  of 
public  opinion  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  works  demands 


INDUSTRIAL   POISONS  263 

that  noxious  emanations  shall  not  be  distributed;  effi- 
ciency of  the  workers  requires  that  they  be  rendered  non- 
injurious  in  the  factory;  and  economy  demands  that  any 
usable  substances  contained  in  these  by-products  be  re- 
covered and  turned  to  account. 

Poison-laden  air  led  away  by  exhausts  must  be  sub- 
jected to  suitable  purifying  processes,  the  valuable  dusty 
or  gaseous  admixtures  collected  as  far  as  possible  and 
suitably  employed,  and  the  waste  rendered  innocuous  by 
destruction. 

Dust  may  be  deposited  in  chambers  in  which  the  air 
remains  stationary,  or  in  special  collectors  where  the  air 
circulates  in  a  closed  funnel  and  settles  the  dust  in  the 
point,  from  which  it  can  be  removed.  This  is  accom- 
plished most  thoroughly  by  filtration,  the  air  to  be  puri- 
fied passing  through  one  or  more  layers  of  fabric,  in  which 
the  deposit  remains.  Filters  are  generally  like  pockets,  or 
in  the  form  of  tubes,  and  are  stretched  in  various  ways  on 
frames.  As  the  filter  would  become  impermeable,  owing  to 
the  collection  upon  it,  and  would  offer  always  increasing 
resistance  to  the  air  flowing  through,  the  deposit  must  be 
removed  by  intermittent  shaking,  stretching,  and  beating 
of  the  filter  by  mechanical  means.  Dust  shaken  off  in  this 
way  may  be  collected  below  from  the  casing.  Rational 
arrangement  of  filtering-plants  for  poisonous  dust  is  very 
important,  because  when  improperly  constructed  and 
worked  the  results  may  be  serious  to  the  workmen  em- 
ployed on  them. 

Worthless  dust  when  combustible  may  be  destroyed 
by  burning.  But  this  is  seldom  the  case  with  poisonous 
kinds.  It  must  generally  be  precipitated  by  water,  the 
dusty  current  of  air  being  introduced  into  water  or  washed 
by  sprays. 


264  SAFETY 

When  gases  and  vapors  can  be  utilized  they  are  con- 
densed and  absorbed,  or  supplied  to  other  industries. 
But,  in  any  case,  the  proper  condensation  and  absorption 
of  poisonous  gases  and  vapors  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance among  protective  measures.  The  more  completely 
and  carefully  this  is  done,  the  more  are  the  workmen 
protected  against  the  possibility  of  illness,  incapacity, 
and  lowered  vitality. 

Condensation  converts  gas  into  solid  or  liquid  form  by 
means  of  cooling.  In  condensing-apparatus  the  path  of 
the  vapor  to  be  condensed  is  lengthened  as  much  as 
possible  by  passing  through  coiled  channels  and  pipes, 
artificially  chilled,  and  by  enlarging  the  surface  for 
condensation  by  means  of  perforated  partitions,  curved 
walls,  chambers,  boxes,  and  cylinders.  The  longer  the 
path  the  more  perfect  is  the  condensation.  The  chilling 
is  generally  accomplished  by  means  of  water-sprays. 

Poisonous  gases  and  vapors  can  be  absorbed  by  water 
or  suitable  solvents,  the  impure  air  rising  in  bubbles  in 
vessels  filled  with  the  liquid.  Absorption  chambers  and 
vessels  are  of  various  construction,  and  when  necessary 
can  be  arranged  in  series.  Absorption  towers  are  also 
sometimes  employed  to  great  advantage,  the  air  to  be 
purified  or  the  gas  to  be  absorbed  being  admitted  be- 
low, while  water  trickles  down  from  above  on  the  counter- 
current  principle.  The  construction  and  filling  of  these 
towers  vary  with  the  character  of  the  gas  or  vapor  to  be 
absorbed.  There  are  coke,  lime,  earthenware,  slab,  and 
other  kinds  of  towers. 

Materials  recovered  by  condensation  and  absorption 
can  be  employed  in  various  ways.  Frequently  they  sup- 
ply an  intermediate  product  of  the  industry  or  a  valuable 
by-product.  Sometimes  the  gas  which  is  led  away  can 


INDUSTRIAL    POISONS  265 

be  supplied  to  another  industry,  as,  for  example,  when  the 
production  of  sulphuric  acid  is  connected  with  the  roast- 
ing process.  Worthless  noxious  gases  should  be  burned  if 
possible.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  the  case  of 
combustible  or  semi-combustible  gases  and  when  rela- 
tively harmless  waste  gases  are  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion. It  would,  of  course,  be  a  mistake  to  burn 
poisonous  sulphureted  hydrogen  and  allow  the  product 
of  combustion — injurious  sulphurous  acid — to  escape. 
Gases  are  most  suitable  for  combustion  which  yield  car- 
bonic acid  and  water  vapor  as  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. Frequently  a  very  valuable  heating-agent,  or  fuel, 
can  be  obtained,  as  when  burning  blast-furnace  gases  and 
others  containing  carbon  monoxide, 


XVII 

CHEMICAL   INDUSTRIES 

A  CHEMICAL  industry  or  manufactory  driven  by 
power  and  producing  its  results  by  chemical  reac- 
tion on  a  large  scale  has  not  only  to  encounter  the  dangers 
incident  to  the  use  of  large  mechanical  powers,  but  in 
addition  the  possibilities  of  disaster  to  the  men  from 
the  chemical-reaction  processes.  Against  these  last  they 
can  protect  themselves  only  with  difficulty  by  reason  of 
their  ignorance  of  what  is  best  to  do.  There  are  poisonous 
and  explosive  compounds  to  be  included  in  this  class,  as 
well  as  strong  acids,  alkalies,  gases,  and  liquids  corrosive 
to  living  tissues.  There  are  dangers  in  the  manufacture  of 
such  compounds  as  soap,  gas-charged  waters,  fertilizers, 
japan  and  varnish,  poisonous  materials,  explosives,  ammu- 
nition and  fulminates,  powder,  picric  acid,  percussion  caps, 
fireworks,  and  compressed  and  liquid  gases. 

While  many  companies  have  found  certain  protective 
measures  to  be  effective,  they  illustrate  but  scattered 
attempts  at  solution  of  the  problems,  and  unless  collected 
are  not  of  much  value  to  the  student  or  technician. 

Inasmuch  as  whole  treatises  could  be  written  on  health 
promotion  in  each  one  of  these  various  lines  of  activity, 
it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  condense  the  treatment  to  a 
discussion  of  the  methods  successfully  applied  in  one 
particular  industry.  Perhaps  the  manufacture  of  lead 
offers  as  good  an  example  of  the  problems  to  be  solved  and 


CHEMICAL    INDUSTRIES  267 

the  methods  applied  to  their  solution  as  could  be  men- 
tioned. 

In  this  industry  as  well  as  in  almost  all  others  the  man- 
agement is  well  aware  that  the  first  step  in  the  elimination 
of  danger  incident  to  the  manufacture  of  lead  concerns 
mechanical  improvements — for  example,  the  substitution 
of  metal  for  woodwork  in  the  housing  of  apparatus  wher- 
ever possible  and  insistence  upon  closed  mechanical 
joints  throughout  the  system.  Equally  important  is  the 
substitution  of  closed  mechanical  conveyors  in  place  of 
trucks  for  handling  materials  and  mechanical  operation 
for  hand  labor  wherever  possible.  Then,  too,  there  must 
be  the  connection  of  all  apparatus  of  whatever  descrip- 
tion handling  lead  products  in  the  dry  state,  to  an  effec- 
tive air-exhaust  system,  the  air  suction  being  maintained 
at  all  times,  to  the  end  that  there  shall  be  an  indraught  of 
air  into  each  opening  or  crevice  from  which  dust  might 
otherwise  escape. 

Regarding  mechanical  improvements  to  prevent  ex- 
posure of  the  employee  to  lead  dust  and  by  the  use  of 
machinery  to  reduce  the  number  of  employees  exposed, 
it  may  be  interesting  to  know  that  in  this  respect  the 
United  States  has  always  been  in  advance  of  foreign 
practice.  But  even  so,  prior  to  five  years  ago  the  im- 
provements made  came  more  as  a  matter  of  general 
mechanical  betterment.  Up  to  that  time  it  was  gener- 
ally recognized  by  lead-manufacturers  that  the  operation 
of  dumping  lead  from  corroding-pots  when  stripping  a 
stack  and  the  operation  of  removing  lead  when  dry  from 
the  drying-pans,  were  especially  dangerous  features  of 
white -lead  manufacture  and  mechanical  ingenuity  had 
so  far  been  unable  to  conceive  remedial  measures.  The 
extent  of  the  operations  of  a  large  organized  company  like 


268  SAFETY 

the  National  Lead  Company  is  such  that  there  is  a  large 
field  from  which  to  draw  suggestions  for  improvement 
and  a  large  force  of  men  competent  to  give  them  expert 
consideration.  The  successful  improvements  are  in  most 
instances  combinations  of  a  number  of  ideas,  and  often 
it  has  been  a  minor  suggestion  which  has  made  a  large 
plan  feasible.  Before  attempting  a  proposed  mechanical 
improvement,  preliminary  study  and  experiment  must 
be  made  with  such  thoroughness  that  the  installation 
when  made  shall  be  practically  free  from  breakdown  and 
from  the  need  of  adjustments  which  involve  the  opening 
of  the  system,  because  the  dust  developed  during  repairs 
or  adjustments  cannot  be  disposed  of  by  the  regular 
exhaust  equipment  and  may  in  the  aggregate  offer  more 
danger  than  that  incidental  to  the  routine  operations 
which  the  machinery  is  intended  to  replace. 

In  1907  the  reconstruction  of  one  of  their  large 
works  afforded  the  National  Lead  Company  an  opportu- 
nity to  carry  into  effect  certain  plans  in  which  hygienic 
considerations  were  prominent.  The  improvements  in- 
augurated have  been  incorporated  at  other  factories  as 
rapidly  as  opportunity  afforded,  in  every  case  extensive 
and  important  additions  to  the  original  plan  being  made. 
The  magnitude  of  the  work  is  such  that  in  most  instances 
the  prudent  practice  has  been  followed  of  giving  a  thor- 
oughly practical  test  of  each  improvement  at  a  single 
factory  before  attempting  to  incorporate  it  in  the  others. 
By  this  method  of  growth  there  has  now  been  perfected, 
and  is  in  regular  operation,  a  complete  system  of  safe 
handling  of  dry  white  lead  from  the  drying-pans  until  it 
leaves  the  chaser  as  lead  in  oil  paste.  This  is  without 
question  the  most  notable  improvement  made  in  lead 
manufacturing,  from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  since  the  early 


DUSTLESS    HANDLING   OF    WHITE   LEAD    BY    THE    NATIONAL   LEAD   COMPANY 


CHEMICAL    INDUSTRIES  269 

days  of  white-lead  manufacture  in  America,  when  inclosed 
machinery  was  substituted  for  hand  labor  in  separating 
the  uncorroded  from  the  white  lead. 

The  perspective  view  herewith  illustrates  this  mechani- 
cal system.  A  battery  of  inclosed  drying-pans  is  shown 
on  the  upper  floor,  and  on  the  lower  floor  the  balance  of 
the  equipment,  including  an  inclosed  chaser.  In  the 
upper  corner  is  a  cross-section  view  of  the  inclosed  drying- 
pans,  showing  a  battery  of  four  pans,  one  above  the  other. 
Each  pan  has  a  double  bottom  through  which  steam  passes, 
supplying  the  heat  for  drying.  As  to  the  inclosure,  it 
will  be  noted  that  the  front  comprises  two  vertical  parti- 
tions, both  provided  with  doors  to  give  access  to  the  pans ; 
one  of  these  partitions  being  placed  close  to  the  front  of 
the -pans,  and  the  other  at  a  sufficient  distance  to  provide 
for  the  installation  of  a  screw  conveyor  at  the  bottom  of 
the  space  thus  formed.  The  front  of  each  pan,  instead 
of  being  vertical,  has  a  gradual  slope,  permitting  the  re- 
moval of  the  contents  with  a  hoe  instead  of  a  shovel.  In 
the  cross-section  view  a  hoe  is  shown  drawing  lead  off  the 
pan,  and  the  lead  falling  between  the  two  partitions  and 
into  the  screw  conveyor.  The  same  operation  is  illus- 
trated in  the  perspective  view  at  the  point  where  a  por- 
tion of  the  front  is  shown  broken  away.  The  lead  thus 
removed  from  the  pans  is  delivered  by,  the  screw  conveyor 
into  the  inclosed  dry  lead  storage-hopper  on  the  floor  below. 

Regarding  dust  control  and  the  circulation  of  air  for 
drying  purposes:  At  one  end  of  the  inclosure  a  suction 
fan  is  mounted,  suitably  inclosed,  the  suction  chamber 
connecting  through  dampers  with  the  space  above  each 
pan.  The  continuous  operation  of  the  fan  maintains  a 
partial  vacuum  throughout  the  pan  inclosure.  Through 
the  openings  marked  "air  inlet"  a  current  of  air  is  ad- 


270  SAFETY 

mitted  which  flows  between  the  bottom  of  the  lowest 
pan  and  the  floor  along  the  entire  length  of  the  pan 
battery.  On  its  way  it  absorbs  heat  from  the  bottom  of 
the  lowest  pan,  and  thus  increases  its  power  to  take  up 
moisture.  When  the  air  reaches  the  chamber  at  the  far 
end  of  the  inclosure  it  divides  and  passes  back  over  the 
tops  of  the  four  pans  to  the  chamber  beneath  the  fan- 
housing  at  the  end  whence  it  started,  and  the  fan  sends 
the  moisture-laden  air  out  into  the  atmosphere.  This  is 
the  regular  course  of  operation.  But  when  the  lead  on  a 
pan  has  become  thoroughly  dry,  and  it  is  necessary  to  un- 
load the  pan,  the  damper  connecting  the  space  above  that 
particular  pan  with  the  fan  chamber  is  shut.  The  outer 
and  inner  doors  of  a  section  of  the  pan  are  then  opened 
to  give  access  to  the  lead.  Immediately  on  opening  the 
doors  there  is  an  indraught  of  air.  This  current  of  air 
picks  up  such  dust  as  arises  when  the  lead  hoed  off  the  pan 
falls  between  the  partitions  to  the  screw  conveyor.  The 
air,  bearing  dust  in  suspension,  flows  to  the  air-distributing 
chamber  at  the  remote  end  of  the  inclosure.  From  the 
distributing-chamber  the  air-current  divides  and  passes 
over  the  three  other  pans  of  the  battery  at  such  a  reduc- 
tion in  velocity,  owing  to  the  larger  area  of  passages,  that 
practically  all  of  the  suspended  dust  is  deposited  on  the 
surfaces  of  the  other  three  pans.  Reaching  the  fan- 
suction  chamber,  the  currents  unite  and  pass  out  through 
the  fan. 

The  operation  of  removing  the  dry  white  lead  from 
the  pans  has  by  this  apparatus  been  rendered  absolutely 
safe.  It  makes  the  panroom  and  the  discharging  opera- 
tion practically  free  from  dust.  The  normal  temperature 
of  the  panroom,  instead  of  being  in  the  neighborhood  of 
100  degrees  Fahrenheit,  is  within  one  or  two  degrees  of 


CHEMICAL    INDUSTRIES  271 

the  temperature  of  the  rest  of  the  factory.  From  the  dry 
white-lead  storage-hopper  the  dry  lead  is  fed  into  the 
weigh-hopper  below  in  such  amounts  as  it  is  desired  to 
mix. 

When  the  beam  of  the  scales  registers  the  correct 
weight,  the  feed  is  cut  off.  By  the  movement  of  a  lever 
the  contents  of  the  weigh-hopper  are  fed  into  a  short  screw 
conveyor  underneath,  and  by  it  are  delivered  into  the  boot 
of  a  bucket-elevator.  By  this  the  lead  is  taken  up  and 
redeposited  into  another  screw  conveyor  which  connects 
with  a  number  of  chasers,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  the 
immediate  foreground  of  the  picture.  By  opening  a  damp- 
er in  the  pipe,  connecting  the  screw  conveyor  with  the 
chaser,  the  lead  is  allowed  to  fall  within  the  inclosed  hood 
of  the  chaser.  There  it  is  mixed  with  oil  in  the  proper 
proportion,  and  after  the  lead  and  oil  are  thoroughly  in- 
corporated a  small  gate  at  the  bottom  is  opened,  and  the 
mixture  discharged  in  the  form  of  white-lead  paste  into 
the  receiver  of  mills  on  the  floor  beneath,  which  give  the 
final  grinding  and  deliver  the  white  lead  in  the  form  of 
the  oil  paste  of  commerce.  While  all  the  joints  through 
this  system  are  made  as  air  -  tight  as  possible,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  an  air-suction  tube  is  connected  to  the  ap- 
paratus as  a  further  precaution.  The  danger  of  poison- 
ing from  dust  has  been  eliminated. 

To  protect  the  men  who  are  taking  the  corroded  lead 
out  of  the  stacks,  two  successful  experiments,  using  ap- 
paratus of  two  distinct  types,  have  just  been  concluded 
by  the  National  Lead  Company,  and  are  being  reduced 
to  a  practical  form  for  use  in  its  stack-yards.  The  dust 
which  endangers  these  men  arises  when  the  pots  contain- 
ing the  corroded  buckles  are  dumped  into  the  box  placed 
in  the  stack  for  that  purpose,  Both  systems  utilize  a  hood 


272  SAFETY 

(which  can  be  readily  attached  to  the  box)  and  a  long, 
flexible  but  not  collapsible  pipe  from  six  to  eight  inches 
in  diameter,  connecting  the  hood  with  an  exhaust  -  fan 
and  dust-collector.  One  type  of  equipment  experimented 
with  uses  a  portable  dust-collecting  unit;  and  the  other 
a  stationary  dust-collecting  unit  with  a  pipe  system  ex- 
tending throughout  the  stack-yard,  provision  being 
made  at  each  stack  for  connecting  thereto  the  flexible 
pipe  above  mentioned.  These  experiments  were  con- 
ducted under  practical  working  conditions,  and  were  suc- 
cessful to  such  an  extent  that  the  use  of  the  experimental 
apparatus  is  being  continued  pending  the  perfection  of 
plans  for  permanent  installation. 

Complementing  the  mechanical  improvements  are  the 
provisions  made  for  personal  hygiene,  such  as  the  in- 
stallation of  complete  washing  and  bathing  facilities,  with 
hot  and  cold  water,  a  free  supply  of  towels  and  soap, 
and  an  allowance  of  company  time  twice  daily  for  wash- 
ing; the  installation  of  double  sets  of  lockers,  one  set  for 
working  and  the  other  for  street  clothes.  Every  possible 
effort  is  made  on  the  part  of  superintendents  and  foremen 
to  influence  employees  to  make  effective  use  of  the  facil- 
ities provided.  The  lunchrooms  are  commodious,  well 
lighted,  heated  and  ventilated,  clean  and  attractive ;  they 
are  all  separated  from  the  workrooms  in  the  factory. 

To  enforce  the  application  of  this  preventive  work 
placards  are  posted  throughout  the  factory : 

1.  Respirators  must  always  be  worn  where  there  is  dust.     KEEP 
THEM  CLEAN.     Shave  frequently  so  that  respirator  fits  snugly. 

2.  Washing.     Before  eating  and  before   leaving  factory  at  night 
employees   must   thoroughly  scrub  their  hands,  clean    their  finger- 
nails, and  brush  their  teeth. 

3.  Clothes.     Employees  must  make  a  complete  change  of  clothing, 
including  hat  and  shoes,  upon  coming  to  work  and  again  at  the  close 


ONE    OF    THE    LUNCH-ROOMS    WHICH    THE    NATIONAL    LEAD   COMPANY    PROVIDES 
FOR    ITS    EMPLOYEES 


OUTFIT    FURNISHED     BY    THE     ALLGEMEINE     ELEKTRICITAETS    GESELLSCHAFT 

FOR    ENCOURAGING     PERSONAL    CLEANLINESS    ON     THE     PART     OF     WORKERS 

IN    POISONOUS    SUBSTANCES 


CHEMICAL    INDUSTRIES  273 

of  the  day's  work.    WORKING-CLOTHES  MUST  NOT  BE  WORN  OUTSIDE 

THE    FACTORY    GROUNDS. 

4.  Baths  shall  be  taken  daily  (on  company's  time)  before  changing 
into  street-clothes. 

5.  Complaints.    The  company  furnishes,  free  of  charge,  respirators, 
sponges,  tooth  and  nail  brushes,  soap,  towels,  and  individual  lockers, 
and  has  equipped  the  plant  with  bathing  facilities  and  sanitary  de- 
vices.    Any  failure  to  furnish  the  above  supplies,  and  any  defect  in 
the  operation  or  sanitary  condition  of  the  machinery  or  equipment 
of  the  factory  observed  by  any  employee  shall  be  called  at  once  to 
the  attention  of  the  foreman  in  charge,  and  if  not  remedied  in  24  hours 

COMPLAINT  SHALL  BE  MADE  DIRECTLY  TO  THE  SUPERINTENDENT. 

6.  Company's  doctor.     Employees  shall  report  to  the  company's 
doctor  every  ailment,  no  matter  how  slight,  as  soon  as  discovered,  and 
shall  be  present  at  the  weekly  examination.     The  company's  doctor 
will  attend  to  employees  for  all  ailments  without  charge. 

IT  IS  FORBIDDEN 

To  eat  in  any  part  of  the  factory  except  the  lunchroom. 
To  bring  beer  or  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  premises. 
To  smoke  in  or  about  any  factory  building. 

RECOMMENDA  TIONS 

Eat  a  hearty  breakfast  before  coming  to  work. 

Milk,  eggs,  and  onions  are  the  best  food  for  workers  in  lead. 

Whisky,  gin,  wine,  beer,  and  other  alcoholic  drinks  are  especially 
harmful. 

Do  not  get  lead  in  your  mouth  from  dirty  hands  or  dusty  clothes. 

Never  carry  chewing-tobacco  in  your  working-clothes  or  touch  it 
with  dirty  hands. 

Keep  clean. 

By  obeying  the  above  rules  and  keeping  lead,  which  is 
a  poison,  from  entering  the  mouth  and  nose,  employees 
can  keep  well  and  lessen  the  risk  of  lead-poisoning,  which 
they  assume  in  entering  the  employ  of  this  company. 


XVIII 

SHOP   SANITATION 

ALREADY  American  industrialists  are  complaining 
jT\  of  the  lack  of  skilled  mechanics  and  capable  work- 
men. It  is  a  serious  problem,  and  here  and  there  the 
employers  are  trying  spasmodically  to  seek  a  solution, 
well  knowing  that  if  they  are  to  hold  their  own  in  the 
keen  competition  for  the  world's  trade  skilled  workers 
are  essential.  Health  is  a  fundamental  for  skill.  The 
next  generation  of  workers  are  now  in  the  public  schools: 
in  a  few  years  they  will  be  at  the  bench  and  in  the  shop. 
Will  they  be  prepared  in  health  and  skill?  In  this  con- 
nection a  recent  report  from  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  is  of  startling  import  and  deserves  the  serious 
consideration  of  every  employer. 

It  cannot  be  taken  for  granted  that  school-children  are  healthy. 
The  majority  of  them  are  not  as  healthy  as  they  should  or  may  be. 

There  are  in  the  schools  of  the  United  States  to-day  approximately 
20,000,000  pupils.  Extensive  observations  of  child  health  for  20 
years  and  careful  study  of  statistics  and  estimation  of  all  conditions 
lead  to  the  following  conclusions: 

From  300,000  to  400,000  (one  and  one-half  to  two  per  cent.)  have 
now,  or  have  had,  tubercular  disease  of  the  lungs. 

About  1,000,000  (five  per  cent.)  have  spinal  curvature,  flat-foot,  or 
some  other  moderate  deformity  serious  enough  to  interfere  to  some 
degree  with  health. 

Over  1,000,000  (five  per  cent.)  have  defective  hearing. 

About  5,000,000  (twenty-five  per  cent.)  have  defective  vision. 

Over  6,000,000  (thirty  per  cent.)  have  enlarged  tonsils,  adenoids, 
or  enlarged  cervical  glands  which  need  attention. 


SHOP    SANITATION  275 

Over  10,000,000  (fifty  per  cent.,  in  some  schools  as  high  as  ninety- 
eight  per  cent.)  have  defective  teeth,  which  are  potentially,  if  not 
actually,  detrimental  to  health. 

Several  millions  of  the  children  possess  each  two  or  more  of  the 
handicapping  defects. 

About  15,000,000  (seventy-five  per  cent.)  of  the  school-children  in 
this  country  need  attention  to-day  for  physical  defects  which  are 
partially  or  completely  remediable. 

If  75  per  cent,  of  the  coming  generation  of  workers  enter 
upon  their  industrial  life  thus  handicapped  the  employer 
must  do  what  the  public  schools  and  the  home  both  failed 
to  do — namely,  provide  the  best  conditions  under  which 
labor  may  be  carried  on.  If  he  is  wise  he  will  concern 
himself  closely  with  the  public-school  system  of  his  com- 
munity to  see  that  those  physical  defects  in  his  coming 
employees  are  remedied  before  they  have  crystallized  into 
partial  or  complete  wage-earning  incapacity. 

Among  the  enemies  which  affect  the  credit  side  of  the 
management's  ledger  is  the  dust  from  dressing  grindstones 
and  working  on  dry  emery-wheels.  This  consists  of  very 
fine,  hard  particles  of  metal,  sandstone,  or  emery,  with 
sharp  edges  and  pointed  corners.  As  the  inhalation  of 
this  dust  causes  at  first  only  a  slight  tickling  or  dryness  of 
the  throat,  the  workmen  have  a  tendency  to  under- 
estimate the  dangers  to  which  they  are  exposed  and  to 
disregard  protective  measures. 

The  formation  of  dust  in  grinding  can  be  prevented 
by  the  process  of  wet  grinding ;  or  if  it  is  necessary  to  grind 
dry,  then  an  adequate  exhaust  system  should  be  provided. 

The  grinder  should  never  breathe  through  his  mouth 
while  at  work,  but  always  through  his  nose.  If  the  nasal 
passages  are  obstructed  or  stopped  the  worker  requires 
the  attention  of  a  physician. 

Equipment  which  prevents  a  stooping  position  while  at 
19 


276  SAFETY 

work  is  advantageous  in  that  it  permits  full  expansion  of 
the  lungs. 

All  grinding-machines  should  be  equipped  with  dust- 
hoods  connected  with  an  exhaust  system  to  carry  away  the 
dust  and  small  particles,  serving  both  to  protect  the  work- 
man and  prevent  wear  and  tear  on  machinery  and  belts. 

In  spite  of  precautions  it  is  found  that  in  some  of  the 
best  grinding-rooms  of  the  country,  where  natural  grind- 
stones are  used,  the  labor  problem  is  a  difficult  one, 
mainly  because  of  the  prevalence  of  disease  and  sickness. 
It  is  interesting  to  follow  what  is  being  done  to  displace 
the  natural  grindstone  by  artificial  stones  made  of  alun- 
dum,  the  particles  of  which  have  been  found  to  be  much  less 
injurious  to  the  worker. 

The  problem  of  grinding  table  cutlery  has  been  solved 
by  certain  large  firms  with  artificial  wheels.  The  surfac- 
ing of  steel  plows  in  the  United  States  is  now  largely 
done  on  artificial  wheels.  Skates,  axes,  and  hatchets 
are  being  ground  successfully  on  these  wheels.  In  fact, 
it  is  the  opinion  of  those  who  are  in  a  position  to  know 
that  all  work  done  on  grindstones  can  be  done  on  arti- 
ficial wheels  made  of  modern  electric-furnace  abrasives. 

The  artificial  stone  does  not  need  to  be  raced  into  shape. 
It  is  at  once  apparent  that  there  is  less  volume  of  dust 
to  handle  than  if  a  natural  wheel  of  the  same  dimensions 
is  used.  The  application  of  the  modern  wheel  permits  the 
use  of  a  relatively  small  wheel,  consequently  it  is  more 
practical  to  give  the  operator  better  protection  by  means 
of  dust-exhausters  and  water-hoods. 

Dust  from  the  abrasives  of  which  these  modern  wheels 
are  made  does  not  readily  affect  the  lungs  or  cause 
bronchial  troubles.  A  most  thorough  medical  examina- 
tion of  more  than  six  hundred  employees  of  one  large  com- 


AUTOMATIC    ACID-DIPPING    PROCESS    IN    USE    AT    THE    ALLGEMEINE    ELEKTRICITAETS 
GESELLSCHAFT.       NO    INHALATION   OF    FUMES    OR    CONTACT    WITH    THE    ACID 


ONE  WEEK'S  ACCUMULATION  OF  DUST  WHICH  DID  NOT  GO  INTO  THE  LUNGS  OF 

WORKERS   AT   THE    NATIONAL   CASH    REGISTER   COMPANY 


SHOP    SANITATION  277 

pany  manufacturing  these  wheels  revealed  only  four  cases 
of  tuberculosis.  The  history  of  these  cases  showed  that 
the  disease  was  contracted  outside  the  works  and  among 
men  who  had  been  in  the  employ  of  the  company  but  a 
comparatively  short  time.  This  percentage  is  remarkably 
low,  and  compares  favorably  with  that  of  the  most  health- 
ful community. 

It  is  fair  to  note  that  an  advance  has  been  made 
toward  stopping  the  death-toll  of  a  trade,  the  mention  of 
which  had  made  those  familiar  with  its  statistics  shudder, 
and  it  can  be  truly  said  that  the  grinder  of  the  future  in 
the  well  heated  and  ventilated  workroom  and  with  the 
modern  grinding- wheel  will  be  in  a  healthful  environment. 

Grinding-dust,  once  inhaled,  slowly  collects  in  the  lungs, 
where  it  eventually  causes  stubborn  catarrhs  and  slow 
inflammations,  developing  into  coughs  and  excretions, 
pains  in  the  chest,  loss  of  appetite,  drowsiness,  and  short 
breath,  known  as  ''grinder's  asthma."  If  the  disease  is 
not  checked,  general  destruction  of  the  lungs  takes  place, 
resulting  in  death.  '  *  Grinder's  rot , "  ' '  grinder's  asthma, ' ' 
and,  ''grinder's  consumption"  are  very  familiar  terms 
among  the  industries  using  grindstones. 

In  statistics  from  the  recently  closed  International 
Hygiene  Exhibition  in  Dresden  showing  the  mortality  in 
the  grinding  trades  of  Sheffield,  England,  during  the 
years  1901  to  1909  it  was  noted  that  the  death  rate 
among  grinders  due  to  phthisis,  or  tuberculosis,  and 
respiratory  diseases  runs  as  high  as  35  per  cent,  in  some 
trades,  and  that  the  average  for  all  males  in  this  district 
in  these  diseases  runs  about  6  per  cent. 

When  a  large  plant  like  the  National  Tube  Company 
considers  it  sufficiently  important  to  supply  cooled, 


278  SAFETY 

filtered  drinking-water  for  upward  of  one  thousand  men 
in  all  parts  of  the  plant  during  twenty-four  hours  in  every 
day  it  stands  as  expert  testimony  on  the  value  of  pure 
water. 

The  system  just  mentioned  includes  a  compressor  and 
circulating-pump,  both  engine-driven,  ammonia  receiver 
and  condenser,  cooling-tank,  filters,  and  distributing- 
lines.  Water  received  from  a  city  main  is  passed  into 
filters,  which  are  connected  in  series  and  provided  with  a 
coagulant  tank,  introducing  a  trace  of  alum  into  the  water 
before  it  is  filtered.  The  filtering  agents  are  silicate, 
sand,  and  charcoal,  and  their  capacity  is  from  540  to  720 
gallons  per  hour. 

From  the  filters  the  water  is  received  into  a  cork-in- 
sulated steel  tank,  where  it  is  cooled  by  contact  with  am- 
monia expansion  coils  from  a  temperature  of  about 
80  degrees  in  summer  to  an  even  temperature  of  45 
degrees.  The  temperature  can  be  regulated  as  desired. 
Refined,  anhydrous  liquid  ammonia,  from  which  every 
impurity  has  been  eliminated,  is  the  refrigerating  agent 
used. 

The  cooling-tank  has  a  capacity  of  two  thousand  gal- 
lons, and  its  inner  surface  as  well  as  the  outside  of  the 
coils  is  coated  with  black  enamel  paint  so  as  not  to  impart 
a  taste  to  the  water. 

From  the  cooling-tank  the  water  is  passed  into  the 
circulating-pump  and  forced  through  the  distributing- 
lines  at  a  pressure  of  about  twenty  pounds. 

The  capacity  of  the  circulating-pump  at  average  speed 
is  three  thousand  gallons  per  hour.  All  gears,  fly-wheels, 
and  couplings  are  provided  with  safeguards. 

The  ammonia-compressor  is  a  combined  suction  and 
pressure  pump  which  aspirates  the  gas  from  the  expansion 


SHOP    SANITATION  279 

coils  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  The  compressor,  engine,  and 
fly-wheel  are  all  equipped  with  safeguards. 

The  ammonia  -  condenser  is  located  directly  over  the 
engine  and  compressor  and  receives  the  gas  as  it  is  dis- 
charged. The  office  of  the  condenser  in  conjunction  with 
the  compressor  is  to  reconvert  the  gas  into  a  liquid  after 
evaporation,  thus  making  the  original  charge  of  ammonia 
available  for  use  in  the  same  apparatus  over  and  over 
again. 

The  compressor-pump,  circulating-pump,  cooling-tanks, 
and  filters  are  mounted  on  concrete  foundations. 

There  are  approximately  7,000  feet  of  distributing- 
lines  consisting  of  a  two-inch  main  and  five  branching 
circuits  of  one-inch  galvanized  pipe,  with  which  fifty-five 
sanitary  drinking-fountains  are  connected.  The  longest 
circuit  in  the  rolling-mill  is  1,790  feet,  with  sixteen  foun- 
tains ;  the  shortest  circuit  through  the  offices  and  pattern 
shop  is  825  feet  in  length,  with  eight  fountains. 

All  the  lines  are  constructed  so  that  the  water  is  kept 
in  rapid  circulation  through  them  and  returned  to  the 
cooling-tank  at  a  temperature  of  about  48  degrees.  The 
pipes  are  covered  with  pressed  cork  insulation,  glued  and 
wired  in  place  and  coated  with  black  shellac. 

The  sanitary  drinking-fountains  are  located  at  con- 
venient places  about  the  plant,  and  are  provided  with 
self-closing  valves.  The  bowl  is  so  designed  that  it  is 
impossible  for  a  man  to  put  his  mouth  on  the  water 
outlet.  All  waste  water  is  carried  directly  to  the  sewer. 

The  average  consumption  per  individual,  including  the 
water  that  is  wasted,  is  about  25  gallons  per  hour,  or  a 
total  of  about  275  gallons  per  hour  for  the  plant. 

The  mill  restaurant  at  the  Gary  Works  of  the  American 
Sheet  and  Tin  Plate  Company  is  a  neat,  one -story 


280  SAFETY 

building  about  61  feet  in  length,  38  feet  wide,  and  n  feet 
high  to  the  ceiling.  It  is  constructed  of  brick,  with  con- 
crete floors,  corrugated  steel  peaked  roof,  and  plaster 
ceiling.  The  interior  is  divided  into  three  rooms — namely, 
the  dining-room,  kitchen,  and  storeroom. 

The  dining-room  is  almost  square,  and  contains  144 
lineal  feet  of  opalite  counter,  built  in  the  form  of  a  huge 
"M,"  around  which  are  ranged  72  seats  for  the  accom- 
modation of  patrons;  three  urns;  two  glass  showcases; 
a  cream  and  butter  cooler;  and  a  cigar  case. 

The  kitchen  is  fitted  up  with  a  steam  warming-table, 
a  cooking-range,  a  cook's  table,  a  pot-sink,  a  two-compart- 
ment glass  and  silver  sink,  a  steam  dish-washer,  two  other 
tables,  and  all  necessary  cooking  and  eating  utensils. 

The  storeroom  is  equipped  with  a  refrigerator,  a  meat- 
block,  and  shelves  for  the  storage  of  commodities. 

The  restaurant  is  not  leased  to  the  keeper,  and  he  is 
not  obliged  to  pay  any  rental;  but  he  must  pay  about 
$20  a  month  to  cover  the  cost  of  heat,  light,  and  water. 
Permission  to  continue  the  business  is  based  entirely  upon 
the  proper  conduct  of  the  restaurant,  the  serving  of  whole- 
some food,  and  keeping  the  premises  in  a  neat  and  sani- 
tary condition. 

The  floors  and  counters  must  be  scrubbed  at  least  once 
a  day,  the  ice-box  and  windows  thoroughly  cleaned  once 
a  week,  and  the  urns  washed  out  daily.  The  sewage-lines 
are  flushed  once  a  week  with  lye  and  water. 

The  drinking-water  is  cool  and  of  excellent  quality, 
being  furnished  by  the  general  water  system  of  the 
plant. 

Most  of  the  unskilled  laborers  carry  their  luncheons 
with  them,  as  do  many  of  the  skilled  workers  also;  but 
about  1 86  regular  meals — breakfasts,  luncheons,  and  sup- 


CONVENIENT    DISINFECTING    APPARATUS     FOR     USE     IN     MILLS    AND 

SHOPS 

A — Steel  tank. 

B — Hole  for  introducing  disinfectant. 

C — Air  connection. 

D — Spray-pipe  hose  for  disinfectant. 


ONE    OF    THE    SANITARY   DRINKING-FOUNTAINS    IN    THE    NATIONAL    CASH   REGISTER 

FACTORY 


SHOP    SANITATION  281 

pers — are  served  here  daily.  The  total  transactions,  in- 
cluding luncheons  and  supplies,  number  about  400  daily. 

The  regular  noonday  meal  is  a  very  substantial  one, 
consisting  of  soup,  a  choice  of  meats,  vegetables  and  des- 
sert, and  costs  only  twenty-five  cents.  Nourishing  food 
is  also  furnished  a  la  carte  at  very  reasonable  prices.  To 
name  a  few  articles:  Hot  soup  may  be  had  for  five  cents 
per  plate;  roast  beef,  lamb,  or  pork  sandwiches  with 
potatoes  and  coffee  for  fifteen  cents;  and  fruits,  pie,  and 
other  desserts  for  five  cents  a  portion. 

A  very  subtle  test  of  the  efficiency  of  an  industrial  estab- 
lishment is  the  equipment  of  the  water-closets  and  the 
condition  in  which  they  are  kept.  In  one  pipe-mill  there 
are  176  men  to  use  the  lavatory  night  and  day.  The 
walls  and  floors  are  tiled,  toilet -bowls  are  flushed  auto- 
matically, and  individual  porcelain  wash-bowls  and  a 
shower-bath  provided.  On  the  day  turn  the  room  will 
accommodate  about  100  men.  In  addition  to  the  above, 
the  furnishings  include  a  slop-sink  and  a  heater. 

With  the  utmost  care  on  the  part  of  the  management, 
and  closest  co-operation  from  the  men  in  observing  the 
proprieties  of  lavatories,  it  is  possible  to  go  a  step  farther 
in  the  provision  of  an  appliance  for  properly  disinfecting 
latrine-buildings,  mill  and  shop  floors,  and  heating-coils, 
to  make  conditions  more  sanitary  for  men  while  working. 

The  illustration  shows  a  traveling  steel  tank,  with  com- 
pressed-air connection  for  the  necessary  pressure  to  the 
liquid,  and  a  spray-pipe  hose  for  disinfectant.  A  good  dis- 
infectant solution  is  one  gallon  of  creosote  preparation  to 
sixty  gallons  of  water,  though  among  the  patent  disin- 
fectants that  have  been  brought  out  lately  there  is  one 
at  least  having  many  times  the  strength  of  pure  carbolic 
and  at  the  same  time  is  non-poisonous  and  non-caustic. 


282  SAFETY 

The  common  type  of  wardrobe  in  the  working-place 
is  a  row  of  hooks  or  pegs,  on  which  hats  and  wraps  are 
hung.  It  requires  no  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  pre- 
dict what  the  consequences  of  such  an  arrangement  may 
be  when  a  worker  comes  from  a  home  where  there  is 
sickness  of  communicable  character.  Each  shopmate  is 
in  danger  of  infection.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is 
the  individual  locker,  which  each  person  controls  by 
means  of  the  lock  and  key.  A  coil  of  steam-pipe  at  the 
bottom  will  dry  the  worker's  clothing  in  wet  weather. 

Good  ventilation  is  imperative;  but,  as  it  merely  in- 
troduces the  outside  air,  which  in  many  places,  and  es- 
pecially in  great  cities,  is  of  poor  quality  and  lacking  in 
energy,  ventilation  must  be  reinforced  by  some  agent 
to  vitalize  the  indoor  air  and  destroy  its  impurities. 

One  such  agent  is  the  Vohr  Ozone  Maker,  a  portable 
instrument  contained  in  a  wooden  case  and  operated 
simply  by  inserting  a  plug  in  an  electric-light  socket  and 
turning  on  a  switch. 

Such  appliances  act  on  stale,  poisonous  indoor  air  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  thunderstorm  acts  on  the  air  out 
of  doors,  burning  up  the  impurities  and  making  the  air 
fresh  and  invigorating. 

One  characteristic  of  the  new  industrialism  is  the  pro- 
vision of  a  medical  department  wherever  the  number  of 
employees  is  sufficient  to  warrant  it.  The  philosophy  of 
this  department  is  to  protect  the  workers  in  the  plant, 
maintain  their  wage-earning  capacity,  and,  wherever  pos- 
sible, to  increase  it.  "  Whatever  will  help  my  men  to 
earn  more  wages  I  will  approve,"  said  a  successful  em- 
ployer, recognizing  that  self-help  means  an  extra  advance 
for  the  business. 


SHOP    SANITATION  283 

The  Norton  Company,  in  establishing  their  medical 
department,  laid  stress  on  these  four  points: 

1.  Complete  physical  examination  of  all  employees. 

2.  Immediate  attention  to  all  defects  found  at  examination,  with  an 
effort  to  rectify  the  same. 

3.  Re-examination  at  regular  intervals  of  employees  having  physi- 
cal defects,  to  see  that  they  are  in  the  best  condition  possible. 

4.  Immediate  attention  to  all  employees  incapacitated  by  injury  or 
illness,  so  as  to  restore  them  to  normal  condition  in  the  shortest  time. 

The  wisdom  of  this  policy  is  apparent  in  the  interest 
the  men  take  in  their  personal  condition  and  their  ap- 
preciation of  the  remedial  measures.  In  the  course  of 
six  hundred  examinations  only  one  man  objected. 

Specific  benefits  resulting  from  this  system  include: 

Immediate  elimination  of  those  absolutely  unfit  for 
work. 

An  increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  partially  unfit  by 
slight  changes  in  work,  medicine,  and  mode  of  life. 

An  exact  knowledge  of  those  who  may  become  partially 
or  wholly  unfit,  and  a  continued  effort  to  keep  these  con- 
ditions from  recurring. 

A  prevention  of  sickness  by  advice  given  to  well  em- 
ployees, and  by  immediate  attention  to  slight  ailments. 

A  reduction  in  the  time  of  recovery  from  accidents. 
Wounds  and  injuries  properly  treated  at  once  heal  very 
much  more  quickly  than  if  treatment  is  delayed. 

The  elimination  of  so-called  blood-poisoning  by  proper 
treatment  of  wounds. 

The  elimination  of  active  tuberculosis,  syphilis,  or  any 
condition  dangerous  to  other  employees. 

After  examining  a  man  the  doctor  discusses  his  physical 
defects  with  him,  and  strongly  urges  him  to  attend  to 
any  weakness. 

Thus  men  having  ruptures  are  advised  to  wear  trusses. 
Those  with  poor  teeth  are  advised  to  go  to  a  dentist,  and 
are  instructed  in  the  importance  of  the  care  of  the  teeth. 


284  SAFETY 

I  If  any  minor  disease  exists,  advice  is  given,  with  pre- 
|  scriptions  if  necessary.  The  employee  is  told  to  report 
!  again  in  two  or  three  days,  as  the  case  requires.  When 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  a 
I  P  sputum  examination  is  made,  and  where  the  kidneys  are 
involved  a  urinalysis.  This  company  expects  soon  to 
make  a  complete  urinalysis  on  all  employees  over  forty 
years  of  age. 

If  the  employee  examined  is  too  sick  to  work  he  is  sent 
at  once  to  his  family  physician. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  every  attempt  is  made 
to  get  the  men  in  perfect  physical  condition  at  the  start. 
But  this  is  not  all.  When  an  employee  is  found  to  have 
a  weak  heart  and  is  doing  work  injurious  to  such  a  condi- 
tion his  work  is  changed;  when  a  man  has  a  double  rup- 
ture he  is  not  allowed  to  do  heavy  lifting;  men  with 
organic  disease  are  required  to  report  at  varying  lengths 
of  time  for  examination  and  advice.  In  this  way  the 
weak  spots  of  the  human  machinery  are  kept  under  close 
supervision  and  any  rapid  degeneration  is  prevented. 
When  a  man  has  once  been  examined  he  is  pretty  sure  to 
return  for  advice  at  his  first  subsequent  sickness. 

By  examinations  and  subsequent  intercourse  with  the 
employees  the  doctor  is  able  to  get  in  very  close  sympathy 
with  his  patients,  and  they  will  discuss  many  things  with 
him  freely.  He  is  thus  able  to  use  his  influence  to  mod- 
ify minor  vices  such  as  over -smoking  and  late  hours 
among  the  younger  men.  In  several  cases  this  practice 
has  had  very  gratifying  results  in  keeping  at  steady  work 
valuable  men  who  have  a  tendency  toward  "sprees:7' 
Working-men  will  listen  to  advice  from  a  doctor  and,  what 
is  more,  follow  it,  when  from  any  one  else  it  would  prove 
of  no  avail  whatever. 


SHOP    SANITATION  285 

One  large  transportation  company  has  just  completed 
a  physical  examination  of  some  six  hundred  waiters  in  its 
restaurant  and  dining-car  service.  Fifty-nine  of  these 
were  discharged  on  account  of  venereal  diseases,  showing 
how  the  public  benefits  by  a  management's  care.  These 
points,  when  brought  out,  prove  valuable  in  enlisting 
the  co-operation  of  the  public. 

In  a  large  factory  in  the  West  the  employment  bureau 
reported  that  as  a  result  of  the  physical  examination  of 
applicants  for  work  a  considerable  number  were  refused 
because  of  venereal  diseases,  thus  warning  and  protecting 
workers  already  employed.  The  management  provides 
illustrated  lectures  fully  covering  every  phase  of  these 
diseases.  A  lecture  of  this  character,  given  on  the  open- 
ing day  of  the  company's  annual  convention  of  a  week's 
duration,  resulted  in  closing  up  the  " red-light"  section 
of  the  district. 

At  the  Wanamaker  stores,  where  there  is  a  sanitary- 
department  directly  under  medical  supervision,  not  only 
the  employees  and  the  management  but  also  the  general 
public  are  directly  benefited.  The  principal  advantages 
of  this  medical  direction  can  be  enumerated  under  six 
heads : 

1.  Protection  against  sickness  and  accident. 

(a)  By  examination  of  new  employees,  and  exclusion  of  those 
with  contagious  diseases. 

(b)  By  discovery  of  contagious  diseases  which  may  arise  in 
the  store,  by  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  and  by  use 
of  antiseptic  precautions. 

(c)  By  sanitary  surroundings,  elimination  of  dusts,  proper  ven- 
tilation, and  supervision  of  food. 

(d)  By  making  occupations  as  free  from  danger   as  possible 
through  the  use  of  safety  devices. 

2.  Immediate  treatment  in  case  of  injury  or  sickness.     Inasmuch 
as  about  one-third  of  the  injuries  are  minor  surgical  cases,  prompt 
attention  causes  these  cases  to  progress  quickly  and  favorably. 


286 


SAFETY 


3.  Raised  standard  of  health  and  energy  through  treatment  for  the 
nose,  throat,  and  ear,  and  prophylactic  dental  work. 

4.  Advice  and  instruction  to  each  individual  upon  questions  of  per- 
sonal hygiene,  particularly  in  respect  to  diet,  sleep,  exercise,  clothing, 
bathing,  care  of  stomach  and  bowels. 

5.  Ability  to  remain  at  work,  reducing  absence  and  loss  of  wages. 

6.  The  creation  in  the  minds  of  the  employees  of  a  sense  of  security; 
a  confidence  that  they  are  working  under  best  possible  conditions, 
that  their  physical  welfare  is  being  provided  for,  that  in  case  of  ac- 
cident or  sickness  immediate  attention  will  be  provided  until  they  can 
consult  their  family  physician,  if  necessary,  and  if  they  so  desire;  a 
happier,  healthier,  saner  body  of  workers,  of  higher  individual  earning 
power. 

When  it  is  impossible  to  have  a  fully  organized  medical 
service  in  a  plant,  there  should  be  an  emergency-room 


AN  INEXPENSIVE  BUT  SERVICEABLE  TYPE  OF  FACTORY  STRETCHER 


equipped  with  the  proper  appliances  and  remedies  where 
first-aid  treatment  can  be  given  to  injuries  and  minor 
ailments.  Until  quite,  recently  it  was  the  policy  of  both 
management  and  force  to  scout  the  idea  of  the  necessity 
for  immediate  treatment  of  what  were  considered  slight 


SHOP    SANITATION  287 

injuries,  but  to-day  it  is  realized  that  even  the  slightest 
injury  should  have  treatment  at  once  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  serious  developments  and  the  consequent 
loss  of  time  and  wages. 

As  a  feature  of  first-aid  equipment  and  emergency- 
rooms  stretcher-boxes  located  at  convenient  points 
throughout  the  plant  are  effective.  It  is  well  to  have  a 
distinguishing  mark  on  the  box,  thus  enabling  them  to  be 
seen  from  a  considerable  distance.  For  instance,  the 
Carnegie  Steel  Company  paints  a  green  cross  on  a  white 
background  of  the  box.  Lists  of  the  locations  of  these 
boxes  are  issued,  so  that  they  may  easily  be  found.  Each 
box  contains  a  Reeves  Army  Stretcher,  woolen  blanket, 
tourniquet,  and  gauze  bandages  for  use  in  stopping  a 
flow  of  blood. 

An  important  feature  of  this  work  is  inspection.  Each 
box  should  be  inspected  daily  with  a  view  toward  keeping 
everything  in  order.  As  soon  as  stretchers  and  blankets 
are  used  they  should  be  immediately  replaced  by  others. 

For  a  quickly  made  stretcher,  cheap  but  serving  fully 
the  purpose,  the  National  Tube  Company  utilizes  a 
framework  of  light  pipe -iron.  A  transverse  section, 
keeping  the  canvas  taut,  makes  it  perfectly  strong. 

A  good  type  of  emergency  stretcher  for  use  in  mines 
is  that  of  the  H.  C.  Frick  Coal  and  Coke  Company.  It 
is  made  with  springs  to  absorb  shock  and  jar  as  the  in- 
jured man  is  being  taken  from  the  mine  to  the  emer- 
gency-room. 

For  rapid  and  comfortable  conveyance  of  an  injured 
man  to  the  works  emergency  hospital  the  Allgemeine 
Elektricitaets  Gesellschaft,  of  Berlin,  uses  a  double  bicycle 
ambulance.  The  injured  man  rests  comfortably  on  the 
stretcher,  which  can  be  quickly  lifted  on  and  off. 


288  SAFETY 

The  expense  of  building  and  equipping  a  hospital  within 
or  near  a  plant  for  its  exclusive  use  is  often  prohibitive. 
When  the  plant  is  located  in  or  near  a  city  where  there 
are  one  or  two  hospitals  it  is  perfectly  possible  for  it  to 
rent  a  part  or  the  whole  of  one  floor  with  the  plant's  own 
surgeons  and  nurses  in  attendance.  At  the  same  time, 
in  case  of  necessity,  the  regular  staff  of  the  hospital  can 
be  drawn  upon.  Such  co-operation  lessens  the  charge 
on  the  plant  and  at  the  same  time  insures  a  fixed  income 
for  the  hospital. 


PART   IV 
SOCIAL  WELFARE 


XIX 

INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

THE  question  of  industrial  education  is  constantly 
attracting  more  and  more  attention  in  the  great 
industrial  countries  of  the  world.  Not  only  manufac- 
turers, who  are  perhaps  most  directly  interested,  but 
educators,  legislators,  labor  leaders,  and  the  general  public 
are  becoming  more  and  more  alive  to  the  necessity  of 
giving  growing  boys  and  girls  useful  and  practical  prep- 
aration in  the  public  schools  for  their  future  careers. 
It  is  worth  while  to  consider  certain  phases  of  this  ad- 
mirable work,  which  should  in  all  cases  include  direct 
instruction  in  good  practice  as  regards  safety. 

Not  long  ago  the  National  Education  Association  of 
the  United  States  pointed  out  the  responsibility  of  "the 
public-school  system  in  training  the  youth  of  the  United 
States  along  vocational  lines,  and  declared  against  the 
waste — in  unprofitable  courses  of  study — of  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  future  factors  in  our  industrial  life. 

The  efforts  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education  should  be  mentioned  in  arous- 
ing public  opinion  to  a  realization  of  the  importance  of 
industrial  education  and  of  turning  out  workers  who  are 
prepared. 

The  committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the  American 
Foundry  men's  Association  has  been  one  of  the  most  active 

forces  in  making  this  subject  a  matter  of  national  im- 
20 


292  SAFETY 

portance.  As  the  chairman  of  this  committee  has  point- 
ed out:  "The  fundamental  aim  of  industrial  education 
should,  however,  be  supplemented  by  the  training  of 
the  worker  in  understanding  the  relation  of  his  work  to 
the  welfare  of  the  community  he  lives  in,  as  well  as  to 
the  nation  at  large. 

"In  the  industrial  school  to  come  the  prospective 
industrial  worker,  as  well  as  the  prospective  engineer, 
should  be  made  to  see  that  mere  manual  dexterity, 
scientific  knowledge,  and  the  mathematical  perfection 
of  mechanical  processes  are  one-sided  possessions  in  the 
struggle  with  keen  competition  if  not  reinforced  by  an 
additional  training  in  civic  duty  which  tells  the  industrial 
worker,  be  his  station  in  life  ever  so  humble,  that  as  a 
man  and  a  citizen  he  is  morally  bound  to  see  to  it  that  his 
fellow-men  are  not  curtailed  in  their  enjoyment  of  life  as 
he  himself  expects  to  enjoy  life.  If  the  mechanic,  be  he 
ever  so  skilful,  or  the  laborer,  be  he  ever  so  strong  and 
quick,  carelessly  or  ignorantly  wastes  time  and  material  or 
slights  his  work,  then  he  increases  thereby  the  cost  of 
the  product  in  various  ways  unnecessarily,  and  lessens  the 
chance  of  its  sale  through  higher  cost  in  competition  with 
other  more  prudent  concerns  or  industrial  nations.  Hence 
he  does  himself  and  others  more  or  less  harm  by  lowering 
wages  or  loss  of  work,  or  both.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
diminishing  of  our  resources  of  raw  materials  by  careless 
waste  makes  living  harder  and  more  difficult  for  those 
who  come  .after  us.  In  either  case  it  is  an  immoral 
act  of  the  mechanic  as  a  man  to  injure  others  in  one 
way  or  another  if  he  can  avoid  doing  so  by  learning 
how. 

"Whatever  differences  there  may  be  between  capital 
and  labor,  the  latter  will  not  improve  conditions  by  neg- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  293 

lecting  the  opportunity  to  become  skilful  to  earn  more; 
but  using  that  skill  in  a  more  economic  manner  will  tend 
toward  a  more  scientific  use  of  our  mental  and  material 
resources,  more  economic  municipal  housekeeping  and  the 
exercise  of  a  greater  co-operative  spirit.  For  the  same 
reasons,  as  well  as  for  self-preservation,  this  duty  likewise 
devolves  upon  capital.  Lavish  waste  of  time  and  ma- 
terial enriches  a  few.  Judicious  economy  without  penu- 
riousness  secures  greater  permanency  of  raw  materials  and 
continued  prosperity  to  the  many. 

"If  this  broader  industrial  education,  all  too  meagerly 
outlined  above,  has  any  right  to  be  heard  in  the  coun- 
cils of  our  industries,  it  is  for  reason  of  the  present  waste 
of  talent,  intelligence,  and  mental  and  moral  discipline  in 
the  years  after  leaving  school. " 

Maintaining  the  supply  of  intelligent,  capable  me- 
chanics is  a  matter  of  concern  to  the  managements  of  all 
manufacturing  plants.  The  pattern  shop  and  foundry 
are  no  exceptions  in  this  regard,  as  skill  and  diversified 
knowledge  are  demanded  in  the  production  of  castings. 
In  recent  years  the  perfection  of  the  molding-machine 
has  evolved  new  ideas  in  pattern-making,  or  a  varied 
application  of  old  principles  to  meet  new  conditions. 
While  many  labor-saving  tools  and  devices  have  been  in- 
troduced, they  have  not  made  an  automaton  of  the 
pattern-man.  His  value  to  his  employers  depends  upon 
his  skill  as  an  artisan  and  his  intelligence. 

The  reason  why  most  manufacturers  feel  the  need  of 
more  efficient  workmen  may  be  ascribed  to  the  system  of 
apprenticeship  in  force  in  most  shops. 

Under  existing  conditions  the  foreman  is  too  busy 
in  attending  to  the  work  that  must  be  put  out  and  in 
giving  orders  to  the  men,  to  devote  much  time  to  the 


294  SAFETY 

instruction  of  apprentices  beyond  the  general  informa- 
tion conveyed  in  giving  them  their  work. 

One  practical  foundryman  has  described  the  situation 
fairly:  "To  teach  a  boy  how  to  run  a  lathe,  a  planer,  or 
any  other  machine-tool  does  not  make  him  a  machinist; 
nor  does  teaching  a  boy  how  to  grind,  sharpen,  and  handle 
his  tools  so  that  he  can  successfully  make  a  glued  joint, 
turn  a  piece  accurately  in  the  lathe,  or  carve  a  block  of 
wood  to  given  lines  make  him  a  pattern-maker.  There  is 
other  information  that  he  must  acquire.  In  addition  to 
such  knowledge  of  mechanical  drawing  as  he  may  be  able 
to  gather  in  the  course  of  his  shop  practice  he  should  be 
taught  the  principles  of  projection  and  enough  plane  geom- 
etry to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  work  with  a  saving  of 
labor  and  material.  He  should  also  have  some  knowledge 
of  mathematics,  and  the  more  of  this  the  better.  It  is  also 
essential  that  he  have  a  knowledge  of  foundry  methods 
and  molding  practice.  This  of  itself  covers  a  wide  range 
to-day.  He  should  have  other  general  information  per- 
taining to  the  trade,  such  as  a  partial  knowledge,  at  least, 
of  modern  machine-shop  practice,  of  the  nature  and  prop- 
erties of  materials  that  are  used  not  only  in  the  pattern, 
but  in  the  finished  casting.  He  should  be  taught  his 
duties  not  only  as  a  workman,  but  as  a  citizen.  This 
would  tend  toward  the  making  of  the  finished  mechanic, 
the  betterment  of  conditions  in  the  shop,  and  an  increase 
in  the  output. " 

The  apprenticeship  plan  of  the  Cleveland  Punch  and 
Shear  Works  Company  is  pronounced  by  many  foundry- 
men  as  the  best  system  of  turning  out  skilled  pattern- 
makers in  this  country.  This  apprentice  system  requires 
a  probationary  period  of  three  months,  during  which 
time  the  boy  helps  wherever  possible  in  lending  a  hand  at 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  295 

sandpapering,    varnishing,    and   other   duties,    while   he 
familiarizes  himself  with  his  surroundings,   the  nature 
of  the  work  and  the  discipline  of  the  shop.     He  is  given 
ample  opportunity  to  show  what  is  in  him,  and  to  make  up 
his  mind  whether  he  wants  to  be  a  pattern-maker  or  not. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  manager  of  the  shop  has  time  to 
decide  whether  the  boy  is  fitted  for  the  work.     At  the 
end  of  this  period  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the  boy  is 
called  in  and  a  contract  entered  into  covering  a  period  of 
four  years,  during  which  time  the  boy  is  to  be  taught  the 
trade.     The  contract  stipulates  the  boy's  duties,  pay- 
ments at  stated  periods,  and  the  amount  of  increase  in 
wages.    The  shou  practice,  briefly  stated,  is  to  start  the 
apprentice  at  cirj^lar  work,  simple  lathe  work,  blank 
gear  work,  and  similar  machine  work.     He  is  given  a 
bench  and  is  expected  to  provide  himself  with  the  neces- 
sary tools.    This  class  of  work  familiarizes  him  with  the 
use  of  machinery  and  different  shop  tools,  which  he  has 
been  carefully  instructed  how  to  handle,  and  with  the 
peculiar  dangers  of  which  he  has  been  warned.    Having 
become  proficient  in  this  class  of  work,  he  is  given  simple 
patterns  to  make,  requiring  bench  work,  and  is  advanced 
to  better  and  more  intricate  work  as  he  shows  himself 
capable  of  performing  it.    It  has  been  found  that  advanc- 
ing the  apprentice  as  rapidly  as  is  consistent  with  the 
thoroughness  of  his  work  makes  him  ambitious  to  learn, 
and  is,  in  the  end,  more  profitable  than  keeping  him  on  a 
class  of  work  that  he  has  learned  to  perform  quickly. 
This  is  justice  to  the  boy  and  is  of  value  to  the  firm. 
Throughout  this  period  of  instruction  the  foundry  meth- 
ods are  given  due  weight,  and  this  knowledge  is  essen- 
tial to  success,  as  the  pattern  made  is  but  a  means  to  an 
end,  and  not  the  end  itself. 


296  SAFETY 

The  same  need  for  trained  workers  is  felt  in  the  mold- 
ing-rooms of  foundries.  In  a  few  thousand  shops  there 
are  turned  out  annually  one  or  two  molders  apiece.  Many 
of  the  workers  never  advance  beyond  the  stage  of  laborers 
or  "handy  men. "  Those  who  do  become  valuable  to  the 
foundry  in  which  they  have  received  their  first  training 
are  very  prone  to  travel  and  to  give  other  employers  the 
benefit  of  their  experience. 

A  few  of  the  larger  establishments,  recognizing  the 
situation,  have  gone  about  the  systematic  training  of  their 
young  men  through  foundry  trade  -  schools  and  special 
courses  of  instruction.  But  the  up-to-date  system  of 
training  apprentices  by  means  of  a  school  in  connection 
with  the  shop  is  possible  only  in  some  of  the  largest 
plants  of  the  country.  To  expect  the  small  manufac- 
turer to  maintain  an  apprentice  -  school  with  special 
instruction  is  not  feasible. 

The  real  solution  lies  in  the  public  school,  where,  after 
the  ordinary  and  elementary  studies  have  been  passed, 
special  studies  should  be  taken  up  bearing  upon  the  chosen 
vocation.  For  instance,  if  a  boy  decides  upon  molding 
as  his  life-work,  he  should  receive,  in  addition  to  practical 
manual  training,  instruction  in  chemistry,  mechanics 
and  other  collateral  studies  which  will  give  him  an  in- 
telligent grasp  of  the  science  of  his  work  when  he  enters 
a  shop  after  leaving  school. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  has  also  real- 
ized that  the  question  of  industrial  education  is  a  serious 
one,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  grow  in  importance.  One 
of  the  early  efforts  in  this  line  was  made  through  a  com- 
mittee of  the  association  in  connection  with  equipping 
with  machinery  certain  buildings  in  the  Winona  Technical 
Institute  of  Indianapolis,  and  the  furnishing  of  scholar- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  297 

ships  to  the  value  of  one  hundred  dollars  each  for  prospec- 
tive students.  The  committee  did  very  effective  work 
in  soliciting  the  contributions  of  equipment  and  scholar- 
ships which  were  made  to  the  Institute  by  individual 
members  of  the  Metal  Trades  Association.  Later,  the 
association  in  conjunction  with  Indianapolis  members 
voted  financial  support  to  the  Institute  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  Metal  Trades  Department,  and  appointed  a 
committee  to  co-operate  with  the  officers  of  the  institu- 
tion in  the  management  of  that  department. 

In  co-operation  with  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  under 
Professor  Herman  Schneider,  members  of  the  National 
Metal  Trades  Association  opened  their  shops  in  1906  to 
the  students  in  the  university's  "  co-operative  course 
in  engineering/'  with  the  result  that  young  men  are  now 
getting  a  practical  and  technical  training  that  was  im- 
possible under  the  old  order.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  products  of  this  course  are  eagerly  sought  after 
and  are  being  absorbed  by  the  trade  faster  in  some 
cases  than  the  finishing-processes  are  completed,  and  that 
the  number  of  applicants  for  enrolment  is  reported  many 
times  greater  than  the  facilities  at  the  university  will 
accommodate. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  manufacturer  in  the  metal 
trades  is  always  glad  to  secure  the  services  of  a  German 
machinist  because  of  his  better  technical  and  theoretical 
training.  The  only  drawback  to  this  type,  as  voiced  by 
one  employer,  is  that  after  a  while  these  men  seem  to 
appreciate  their  superiority  over  the  other  workmen  and 
develop  a  more  or  less  annoying  case  of  self-importance. 
When  it  is  pointed  out  that  these  men  are  the  fruit  of  a 
system  which  we  in  America  are  trying  to  inaugurate,  the 
employer  readily  sees  the  point  and  is  more  than  ever 


298  SAFETY 

willing  to  help  along  this  type  of  education.  The  com- 
plaint has  been  made  that  the  graduates  of  some  of  the 
higher  grades  of  educational  institutions  are  afraid  of 
soiling  their  hands  and  clothes  or  of  donning  a  suit  of 
overalls,  indicating  the  advisability  of  extending  the 
field  of  the  purely  trade  school  and  providing  industrial 
training  and  education  for  the  boy  who,  for ,  reasons 
wholly  beyond  his  own  or  his  parents'  control,  is  obliged 
to  fare  forth  and  assist  in  providing  the  necessaries  of 
life  for  the  family.  The  need  for  the  education  of  such 
boys  has  been  provided  for  in  some  instances  by  the 
organization  on  the  part  of  members  of  the  National 
Metal  Trades  Association  of  apprentice  -  schools  in  the 
plant  or  factory  of  the  association  member.  Arrange- 
ments are  made  for  a  teacher,  and  the  boys  are  alternated 
in  small  groups  between  the  schoolroom  and  the  shop. 
In  one  instance  in  Cleveland,  where  the  demand  was 
great  and  no  one  manufacturer  would  undertake  such  a 
work  alone,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was  induced  to  take  up  the 
work  of  organizing  and  teaching  while  the  manufacturers, 
members  of  the  National  Metal  Trades  Association,  and 
others  furnished  scholarships  of  a  certain  value  and 
agreed  to  allow  the  boys  opportunity  in  the  daytime  to 
attend  the  classes  on  certain  days  each  week.  The  great 
avidity  with  which  the  boys  grasped  the  opportunities  is 
the  most  eloquent  testimonial  to  the  merits  of  this  plan. 
The  great  economic,  social  and  industrial  gain  by  the 
continuance  of  these  measures  can  hardly  be  estimated. 
Better  mechanics,  better  workmen,  better  citizens,  and 
better  men  in  every  conceivable  respect  are  being  pro- 
duced than  if  this  same  material  had  been  allowed  to 
drift  into  the  unskilled  occupations  or  to  grow  up  on  the 
street. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  299 

Realizing,  after  some  time,  that  the  spread  of  industrial 
education  should  be  in  the  hands  of  specialists,  and 
appreciating  the  work  of  the  National  Association  for 
the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  to  this  end, 
the  National  Metal  Trades  Association,  at  its  annual 
convention  in  1911,  appropriated  money  to  be  used  at 
the  discretion  of  its  administrative  council  for  advancing 
the  work  undertaken  by  the  former.  Of  this  amount 
a  part  was  paid  to  the  National  Association  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Industrial  Education  in  the  autumn  of  1911, 
and  the  disposition  of  the  balance  was  left  with  the  ad- 
ministrative council  by  the  convention  of  1912. 

The  National  Metal  Trades  Association  has  identified 
itself  with  this  movement  both  as  a  national  body  and 
through  its  branches,  and  in  addition  to  the  instances 
above  noted  members  of  the  National  Metal  Trades 
Association  in  branch  territory  have  lent  their  support 
to  institutions  which  are  teaching  students  along  industrial 
lines. 

In  Chicago  the  Lewis  Institute  receives  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  association;  Cincinnati's  Continuation  School 
and  Co-operative  High  School,  in  addition  to  the  Univer- 
sity, are  training  mechanics  in  many  trades  and  have  the 
members'  hearty  approval;  Cleveland  has  its  Technical 
High  School  in  the  public-school  system  in  addition  to 
the  work  being  done  by  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  mentioned;  members  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
have  induced  the  public-school  authorities  to  inaugurate 
a  continuation  school  to  which  they  will  send  their 
apprentices;  New  Haven,  Conn.,  members  have  co- 
operated with  the  Boardman  School,  and  are  trying  to 
induce  the  Board  of  Education  to  take  up  the  matter  of 
industrial  training  for  the  apprentices  in  their  shops; 


300  SAFETY 

St.  Louis  members  are  working  with  the  Rankin  Trade 
School  in  that  city,  and  report  very  gratifying  progress. 
The  members  of  the  National  Metal  Trades  Association 
are  alive  to  the  necessity  of  education  for  the  American 
boy  of  a  sort  to  fit  him  for  his  life-work,  thus  increasing 
our  national  industrial  efficiency  and  enabling  our  country 
to  hold  its  own  in  the  markets  of  the  world  with  those 
nations  who  long  since  saw  the  advantages  of  such  an 
educational  system,  and  who  are  now  reaping  the  fruits 
of  their  wisdom  and  foresight. 

Well-trained  apprentices  are  already  going  from  the 
shops  and  factories  of  members  of  the  National  Metal 
Trades  Association  into  the  ranks  of  the  mechanics  of 
the  country,  making  for  the  industrial  betterment  of  the 
whole  nation. 

The  object  of  the  school  for  apprentices  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  Company  is  to  give  apprentices  of  the 
road  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of  mathematics, 
mechanics,  and  drawing,  with  a  view  to  making  them  more 
useful  in  their  chosen  trades.  The  work  is  very  practical, 
the  problems  in  the  various  courses  being  drawn  directly 
from  the  shop  practice. 

Attendance  at  the  school  on  the  part  of  the  apprentices 
enrolled  is  compulsory  for  all  exercises  scheduled.  When 
.new  apprentices  are  taken  on  they  attend  the  appren- 
tice-school promptly  after  they  take  up  their  apprentice- 
ship, and  they  complete  the  course  in  the  term  in  which 
their  third  year  of  apprenticeship  ends.  Vacations,  when 
granted,  fall  without  the  school-year.  If  for  any  reason 
an  apprentice  must  be  absent,  he  must  obtain  per- 
mission from  his  foreman  and  he  must  advise  the  au- 
thorities at  the  school,  giving  the  cause  of  absence. 
A  weekly  report  of  attendance  is  issued  by  the  instruc- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  301 

tor  to  the  master  mechanic  or  general  foreman  of  each 
shop,  and  through  their  co-operation  a  very  close  account 
is  kept  of  each  apprentice. 

The  work  as  outlined  is  arranged  to  cover  three  years 
of  forty-two  weeks  each.  Each  apprentice  receives  four 
hours  of  instruction  per  week,  making  a  total  of  five 
hundred  and  four  hours  for  the  three  years.  The  work 
is  given  in  periods  of  two  hours,  so  that  the  apprentice 
reports  two  days  per  week.  Each  year  is  divided  into 
two  terms  of  twenty -one  weeks  each.  It  is  intended 
that  the  apprentice  shall  have  two  hours  of  recitation 
work  per  week  and  two  hours  of  drawing  and  laboratory 
work.  The  recitation  work  requires  outside  preparation, 
and  it  is  intended  that  the  apprentice  shall  devote  one 
hour  of  study  for  every  hour  of  recitation  work.  The 
drawing  and  laboratory  work  require  no  outside  prep- 
aration. 

Those  reporting  at  the  school  consist  of  the  apprentices 
in  the  first,  second,  and  third  years  of  their  apprentice- 
ship, and  for  purposes  of  instruction  are  divided  into 
seven  sections,  lettered  from  A  to  G  inclusive;  A,  B,  and 
C  are  sections  of  the  upper  class,  and  D,  E,  and  F  sections 
of  the  lower  class,  while  G  is  a  preparatory  section  or 
class  provided  for  such  apprentices  as  may  enter  after 
the  beginning  of  the  term.  The  work  of  the  preparatory 
class  is  analogous  in  a  general  way  to  that  of  the  other 
classes,  but  it  is  the  effort  here  to  give  closer  instruction 
in  order  that  such  apprentices  may  join  the  regular  classes 
as  early  as  their  qualifications  will  permit. 

Apprentices  showing  a  special  aptitude  for  their  work 
may  be  formed  at  any  time  into  a  class  which  moves 
faster  and  takes  more  advanced  work  than  the  others. 

Each  of  the  sections  from  A  to  F  inclusive  is  composed 


302  SAFETY 

of  a  maximum  of  thirty  men.  The  number  of  apprentices 
in  section  G  may  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  rate 
at  which  new  apprentices  are  taken  on  by  the  company, 
and  according  as  promotions  and  demotions  are  made 
among  the  young  men  already  registered. 

The  courses  of  study  include  mathematics,  mechanics, 
and  drawing,  with  as  much  of  English  and  science  as  is 
warranted  in  a  school  whose  object  is  primarily  specific 
trade  education. 

The  work  in  English  covers  instruction  in  the  proper 
spelling  and  meaning  of  words,  parts  of  speech,  forma- 
tion and  structure  of  sentences,  and  composition- writing. 
Some  attention  is  given  to  instruction  in  the  correct 
method  of  writing  business  letters,  making  out  order- 
blanks,  time  and  other  reports. 

The  work  in  mathematics  is  at  the  beginning  very 
elementary,  eventually  leading  to  the  study  of  such  por- 
tions of  higher  mathematics  as  are  especially  useful  in 
the  solution  of  shop  problems.  The  lower  class  takes  up 
applied  arithmetic,  beginning  with  the  elementary  proc- 
esses of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division. 
The  upper  class  begins  its  work  with  algebra  and  con- 
tinues into  applied  geometry  and  the  study  of  the  more 
simple  trigonometric  formulae.  This  is  taught  largely  by 
means  of  shop  problems. 

The  course  in  physics  is  made  up  of  two  parts — reci- 
tations and  lectures,  and  laboratory  work.  The  reci- 
tations and  lectures  are  intended  to  familiarize  the 
apprentice  with  fundamental  physical  principles.  The 
laboratory  work  is  intended  to  develop  powers  of  ob- 
servation and  demonstrate  physical  principles  through 
experiment.  Considerable  time  is  given  to  the  study  of 
elementary  electricity  and  electrical  applications. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  303 

The  study  of  mechanical  drawing  begins  with  plates 
enabling  the  student  to  become  familiar  with  drawing- 
instruments  and  with  standard  forms  of  lettering,  dimen- 
sioning, and  conventional  signs.  Drawing  from  models 
and  plates  is  then  taken  up  and  some  time  is  devoted  to 
the  completion  of  partially  finished  drawings.  Free- 
hand sketches  of  shop  pieces  and  parts  of  machines  are 
made  by  the  apprentice  and  reproduced  in  the  drawing- 
room  as  finished  drawings.  The  apprentice  is  also  given 
a  little  practice  in  tracing  and  blue-printing.  Many  of 
the  problems  involving  principles  of  geometry  and  me- 
chanics are  worked  out  on  the  drawing-board  under  the 
head  of  geometric  drawing  and  graphics. 

The  work  in  mechanics  is  elementary,  and  deals  only 
with  those  problems  which  relate  to  machine  parts. 
The  work  includes  a  study  of  forces  and  motion,  and  re- 
sistance, and  work  and  problems  relating  to  simple  ma- 
chines. 

The  work  in  mechanism  is  similar  to  that  m  mechanics, 
and  includes  problems  having  to  do  with  motion,  velocity, 
and  acceleration;  a  study  of  general  machine  parts  and 
the  different  modes  of  transmission  is  included  under 
this  subject. 

The  processes  of  manufacture  and  properties  of  ma- 
terials used  in  machine  construction  are  considered. 
This  is  followed  by  a  study  of  testing-machines  and  of 
the  results  obtained  from  these,  showing  the  value  of 
such  work  as  related  to  the  subject  of  machine  design. 

The  work  in  mechanics,  mechanism,  and  strength  of 
materials  affords  the  apprentice  sufficient  preparation  to 
enable  him  to  take  up  the  partial  problems  of  elementary 
machine  design.  In  this  work  simple  problems  are  given 
in  the  five  elementary  stresses,  with  applications  to  ma- 


3o4  SAFETY 

chine  parts.    A  short  study  also  is  made  of  machine  mem- 
bers, with  regard  to  power  transmission. 

The  course  in  chemistry  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
general  and  commercial  chemistry.  The  general  chemistry 
includes  only  enough  of  the  subject  to  enable  the  appren- 
tice to  appreciate  some  of  the  problems  which  follow  in 
commercial  chemistry.  In  commercial  chemistry  a  study 
is  made  of  water  and  fuels  as  regards  their  composition 
and  use.  The  combustion  of  fuels,  including  their  eco-' 
nomical  use,  and  a  short  study  of  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facture are  also  included  in  this  work. 

Steam  practice  deals  with  descriptive  matter  more  than 
design  problems.  The  power-plant  as  a  whole  is  first 
considered.  Each  part  is  then  studied  in  detail;  the 
steam  engine  receives  chief  consideration. 

The  work  in  experimental  tests  deals  with  descrip- 
tions and  methods  of  testing  pieces  of  apparatus  in  any 
manufacturing  plant.  This  is  followed  by  simple  friction 
and  efficiency  tests  of  engines  and  boilers. 

There  is  also  a  course  in  shop-management  consisting 
of  a  series  of  lectures  designed  to  familiarize  the  appren- 
tice with  shop  arrangement  and  management,  depart- 
mental and  stockroom  reports,  cost  and  time-keeping 
systems,  and  economic  methods  of  handling  work.  This 
course  is  intended  to  enable  the  apprentice  to  under- 
stand better  his  duties  and  responsibilities  with  reference 
to  the  general  organization  in  which  he  is  working. 

In  order  to  provide  a  basis  upon  which  to  establish 
his  records  the  following  system  of  credits  is  employed. 
One  credit  is  allowed  for  each  hour  of  theory  taken  per 
week  throughout  a  term,  and  one-half  credit  for  each 
hour  of*  drawing  or  laboratory  work  per  week  for  a  term ; 
thus  an  apprentice  taking,  for  a  term  and  according  to 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  305 

the  schedule,  two  hours  of  theory  per  week  receives 
two  credits,  and  for  drawing  or  laboratory  work  of  two 
hours  each  week  for  a  term  receives  one  credit,  making  a 
total  of  three  credits  for  the  term.  On  this  basis  for  com- 
pleting the  entire  course  of  three  years,  or  six  terms,  the 
apprentice  receives  eighteen  credits.  This  system  of  credits 
establishes  for  each  term  the  relation  of  the  subjects 
covered  by  the  apprentice  to  those  of  the  entire  course. 
In  order  to  have  proper  credits  those  who  for  any  reason 
miss  a  regular  exercise  make  up  the  work  without  inter- 
ference with  the  regular  exercises,  but  through  excessive 
absence  or  gross  inability  the  apprentice  may  forfeit  the 
credits  of  the  course  he  is  pursuing  either  entirely  or  in 
part  and  be  demoted  or  dropped  from  the  school.  Ap- 
prentices in  the  advanced  class  may  cover  their  ground 
more  rapidly  than  the  other  classes,  and  therefore  may 
at  the  end  of  three  years  have  more  than  eighteen 
credits. 

A  monthly  report  of  grades  is  made  by  the  head  in- 
structor and  submitted  to  the  general  office  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  as  well  as  to  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College.  In  determining  these  grades 
the  deportment  and  aptitude  of  the  apprentice  are 
considered  as  well  as  the  work  actually  done.  The 
monthly  records  are  based  on  daily  recitations,  occasional 
written  lessons,  and  monthly  examinations.  Only  those 
apprentices  whose  records  are  unsatisfactory  are  reported 
to  the  parent  or  guardian,  although  a  complete  report  of 
all  apprentices  attending  the  school  is  maintained  at  the 
school  and  on  file  at  the  offices  of  the  railroad  company. 
In  the  month  of  July  there  is  submitted  an  annual  report, 
which  gives  a  summary  of  the  monthly  reports  and  con- 
tains a  statement  by  the  head  instructor  expressing  his 


3o6  SAFETY 

judgment  of  the  ability,  character,  and  special  aptitude 
of  each  apprentice. 

The  monthly  and  annual  detailed  reports  of  the  in- 
structor concerning  each  member  of  the  classes  and  the 
natural  sifting  out  of  those  lacking  in  suitable  ability  or 
character,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  regular 
records  of  the  shop  foremen,  form  excellent  and  accurate 
bases  upon  which  to  select  and  use  the  men  to  the  best 
advantage  in  the  shops.  The  apprentices  of  much  more 
than  ordinary  ability  and  character  are  easily  discernible 
by  their  work,  and  at  the  same  time  the  specially  promi- 
nent attributes  of  each  individual  class  member  are  apt 
to  be  marked. 

The  educational  work  of  the  National  Cash  Register 
Company  among  their  employees  is  interesting.  In  addi- 
tion to  lectures  and  pamphlets  on  subjects  connected  with 
the  operation  of  the  factory  and  designed  to  assist  the  em- 
ployees in  their  work,  special  lectures  have  been  prepared 
on  digestion,  respiration,  and  general  diseases.  Illus- 
trations have  been  secured  from  every  known  source, 
and  each  subject  is  presented  so  logically  and  clearly 
that  the  most  thoughtless  and  careless  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed. 

For  these  and  other  lectures,  not  only  on  health,  per- 
sonal hygiene,  sales  and  efficiency,  but  also  on  progress, 
science,  travel,  landscape  gardening,  civic  improvement, 
and  many  other  subjects,  some  thirty  thousand  slides  have 
been  collected.  Nearly  all  of  these  slides  were  made  and 
colored  in  the  slide  department,  located  on  the  eleventh 
floor  of  the  office  -  building.  This  department  employs 
twelve  persons,  including  two  photographers,  ten  artists 
and  assistants,  and  has  specially  equipped  darkrooms  and 
studios  for  this  work.  Kinemacolor  motion  pictures  are 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  307 

also  used  to  illustrate  certain  subjects,  such  as  the  func- 
tioning of  various  organs  of  the  body,  when  through  the 
education  of  their  eyes  the  classes  receive  such  informa- 
tion regarding  the  physical  organism  as  they  would  never 
gain  from  the  printed  text-book  or  academic  lectures  on 
these  subjects. 

The  educational  center  for  this  work  is  known  as  the 
Hall  of  Industrial  Education,  a  beautiful  building  de- 
signed by  McKim,  Mead  £  White,  of  New  York.  There 
is  nothing  unusual  in  the  appearance  of  its  exterior; 
the  architecture  is  simple  and  graceful.  Within,  the  hall 
seems  like  any  other  of  similar  size  and  use,  but  its  appear- 
ance is  misleading.  The  walls  are  lined  with  felt  an  inch 
thick,  every  inch  of  the  floor  space  is  deadened  by  thick 
linoleum,  and  the  ventilation  is  at  least  four  times  supe- 
rior to  the  usual  standard  maintained  in  public  halls. 

Back  of  the  stage  are  twin  squares  of  ground  glass, 
each  twelve  feet  square,  for  the  projection  of  lantern 
slides;  but  all  this  machinery  is  hidden  and  works  from 
behind  so  that  there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  distract 
the  eye,  brain,  or  nerves  of  the  audience.  For  possibilities 
in  holding  the  attention  of  an  audience  this  hall  stands 
in  the  very  first  rank. 

The  importance  of  an  apprenticeship  system  to  the 
development  of  a  highly  organized  engineering  depart- 
ment was  recognized  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and 
Manufacturing  Company  very  shortly  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  its  works  at  East  Pittsburg,  Pa.  The  appren- 
ticeship course  as  first  organized  in  1896  was  established 
to  keep  track  of  the  young  men  who  presented  no  special 
qualifications  along  electrical  lines  and  who  entered  the 
organization  with  only  the  assurance  that  as  opportunities 

afforded  they  would  be  advanced.    Technical  graduates 
21 


3o8  SAFETY 

and  others  were  treated  alike  as  far  as  the  course  of 
shop  training  was  concerned.  This  arrangement  was,  of 
course,  rather  unsatisfactory  to  the  company  and  to  the 
men. 

In  1902  the  apprenticeship  course  was  put  on  a  more 
systematic  basis.  It  is  now  known  as  the  engineering 
apprenticeship  course,  and  admits  graduates  of  technical 
schools  and  universities.  The  course  is  of  two  years' 
duration,  or  5,480  hours,  18  cents  per  hour  being  paid  the 
first  year,  20  cents  for  the  next  six  months,  and  22  cents 
for  the  remainder  of  the  second  year.  The  man  is  put  on 
trial  for  685  hours  before  he  is  admitted  fully  to  the  course. 
Application  for  the  engineering  apprenticeship  course  must 
be  made  by  letter  in  the  handwriting  of  the  applicant, 
stating  date  of  birth,  course  pursued,  degrees  received, 
any  practical  experience  which  he  may  have  had,  and  the 
name  and  address  of  father,  or  mother  if  father  is  deceased, 
or  guardian.  A  recent  photograph  of  the  applicant  must 
be  submitted  with  his  application  together  with  references. 

The  apprentice  is  given  an  opportunity  to  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  manufacturing  operations,  the  general 
construction  and  working  of  the  apparatus  produced, 
and  actual  shop  and  engineering  experience  to  supplement 
the  work  he  has  done  in  college.  Sometimes  apprentices 
are  taken  from  the  course  to  fill  regular  positions  in  the 
company's  engineering  or  sales  organization  before  the 
expiration  of  the  full  apprenticeship  service;  in  this  case 
the  compensation  is  increased  in  accordance  with  the 
position  that  the  apprentice  has  been  called  upon  to  fill. 

The  apprentice  devotes  somewhat  over  one-half  of  his 
time  to  the  shops  and  the  rest  of  the  time  to  the  engineer- 
ing, construction,  testing,  and  correspondence  depart- 
ments. The  large  scope  of  the  work  in  which  he  is  per- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  309 

mitted  to  engage  gives  him  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
become  familiar  with  up-to-date  engineering  practice  and 
to  decide  what  branch  of  the  work  he  will  pursue.  The 
time  is  divided  between  the  different  departments,  de- 
pending upon  the  relative  values  of  the  experience  to  be 
gained  in  these  departments.  The  testing  department 
comes  last,  since  it  is  desired  that  the  apprentice  should 
have  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  apparatus  and  its 
parts  before  he  is  permitted  to  operate  it. 

Engineering  apprentices  can  avail  themselves  of  the 
advantages  of  the  Westinghouse  Club,  a  club  that  incul- 
cates among  its  members  a  spirit  closely  akin  to  the  feeling 
that  exists  among  the  undergraduates  of  a  college.  It 
affords  an  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  other 
young  men  whom  the  member  should  know  in  his  future 
career,  as  well  as  older  and  more  experienced  men  in  his 
field  of  work.  The  club  provides  for  educational,  social, 
and  athletic  activity  among  its  members,  and  is  governed 
by  a  board  of  thirteen  directors,  chosen  for  the  most 
part  from  the  younger  men,  who  are  thus  responsible  for 
the  direction  and  success  of  the  club.  Incidentally,  an 
important  advantage  of  membership  to  these  younger 
men  is  the  experience  gained  in  conducting  such  an  organ- 
ization. The  predominant  feature  of  the  club  is,  however, 
its  educational  work.  Sections  of  technical  or  engineer- 
ing classes  are  organized  to  deal  with  the  application  and 
construction  of  various  types  of  apparatus  or  to  consider 
other  subjects  of  importance  in  industrial  organization 
and  management.  These  classes  supplement  the  daily 
engineering  work  of  the  apprentice  in  the  factory. 

The  apprenticeship  courses  of  the  Westinghouse  Ma- 
chine Company  are  conducted  along  the  same  general 
lines  and  the  requirements  for  admission  are  practically 


310  SAFETY 

the  same.  These  apprentices  come  from  universities 
and  colleges  all  over  the  country. 

The -two  years'  course  for  the  engineering  apprentices 
is  divided  as  follows:  Eight  months,  turbine  department; 
two  months,  condenser  department;  four  months,  gas 
and  steam  department;  two  months,  producer  depart- 
ment; three  months,  field  erecting;  three  months,  drafting; 
and  two  months,  miscellaneous  work. 

The  wages  paid  are  the  same  in  both  companies,  and 
give  an  average  monthly  pay  of  $40  to  $45  the  first  year 
and  from  $45  to  $55  the  second  year.  An  apprentice's 
expenses  average  about  $35  a  month.  Although  the 
remuneration  does  not  provide  for  the  indulgence  of  any 
expensive  habits,  still  it  is  ample  to  provide  the  essentials. 

With  few  exceptions  all  of  the  men  who  graduate  in  the 
machine  company's  course  are  taken  into  the  company's 
sales  or  engineering  organizations.  Some  of  these  excep- 
tions are  men  who  are  sent  by  the  company's  customers 
to  take  the  course.  Sometimes  a  company  that  is  operat- 
ing a  great  many  Westinghouse  machines  desires  to  have 
some  man  in  its  organization  familiarize  himself  thorough- 
ly with  their  design  and  operation  by  taking  the  appren- 
ticeship course. 

The  apprentices  with  the  machine  company  are  also 
eligible  to  membership  in  the  Westinghouse  Club.  This 
affords  them  social,  physical,  and  educational  advantages. 

Recently  the  New  York  Central  lines  put  into  opera- 
tion at  the  larger  shops  a  school  system  for  the  benefit 
of  the  shop  apprentices,  in  various  trades.  The  purposes 
of  these  schools  are: 


i.  To  improve  the  quality  of  mechanical  skill  available  in 
shop  work. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  311 

2.  To  make  apprenticeship  attractive  to  intelligent  boys. 

3.  To  make  it  possible  for  the  right  kind  of  boys  to  rise  from 

the  ranks  to  positions  as  foremen  and  master  mechanics. 

School  work  is  done  in  regular  shop  time  under  pay, 
and  in  the  morning  when  the  boys  are  at  their  best. 
The  work  is  done  under  drawing  and  shop  instructors 
appointed  from  the  local  shops,  these  instructors  being 
under  the  direction  of  the  officers  of  the  company  in  charge 
of  the  local  shop  operations.  The  whole  work  is  under 
the  supervision  of  a  superintendent  of  motive  power. 

The  boys  who  apply  for  apprenticeships  in  the  shops 
of  the  company  are  of  various  grades  of  education,  some 
having  practically  no  schooling  while  others  are  high- 
school  graduates.  The  instruction  is  therefore  somewhat 
varied  in  character,  but  is  mainly  of  two  general  types — 
drawing  and  numerical  calculations,  and  shop  work.  The 
drawing  instruction  is  given  in  rooms  or  small  buildings 
especially  devoted  to  this  work.  These  rooms  are  fitted 
up  in  a  simple  style  with  drafting-tables,  blackboards, 
cabinets  for  storing  boards  and  supplies,  and  models. 
The  courses,  which  are  laid  out  for  all  shops  by  the 
superintendent  of  apprentices,  are  of  a  nature  to  appeal 
to  apprentice  boys.  Early  experience  with  the  work 
showed  that  school  methods  and  especially  college  methods 
are  not  applicable  to  this  class  of  instruction.  Academic, 
numerical,  geometrical,  and  graphical  problems  make  no 
appeal  to  the  shop  apprentice.  He  must  be  instructed 
in  terms  of  his  environment.  Hence  the  objects  which 
he  is  expected  to  draw  are  the  familiar  things  with  which 
he  works  in  the  shops.  Small  locomotive  parts,  parts  of 
shop  tools,  wrenches,  and  nuts  form  the  drawing-exercises. 
Very  simple  subjects  are  assigned  at  the  start,  leading  up 
to  rather  complicated  ones  toward  the  close  of  the  four- 


3i2  SAFETY 

year  course.  The  work  includes  tracing,  so  that  the 
student  finally  leaves  his  work  as  if  for  use  in  actual  con- 
struction. In  many  cases  the  apprentices  actually  pre- 
pare drawings  for  foremen,  supplementing  the  work  of 
the  regular  draftsmen. 

The  drafting-room  periods  afford  an  opportunity  also 
for  testing  the  ability  of  the  students  to  think  for  them- 
selves. A  large  number  of  problems  are  assigned  for  home 
work,  these  problems  being  all  of  a  simple  and  practical 
character.  Solutions  to  the  problems  are  handed  in  from 
time  to  time,  and  by  means  of  blackboard  exercises 
the  real  ability  of  the  pupils  in  solving  problems  is 
tested. 

Most  of  the  time  of  the  apprentices  is  put  in  at  actual 
shop  work  under  the  direction  of  the  shop  instructor. 
The  instructor  is  a  practical  mechanic  who  is  familiar 
with  all  branches  of  shop  work.  His  duty  is  to  see  that 
the  pupil  is  taught  thoroughly  all  branches  of  the  selected 
trade.  The  instructor  shifts  the  pupil  from  one  line  of 
work  to  another,  giving  him  sufficient  time  to  permit  a 
thorough  mastery  of  each  part.  For  example:  if  a  boy 
elects  to  learn  the  trade  of  machinist,  which  requires 
four  years,  his  time  will  be  divided  roughly  as  follows: 
helping  in  shop,  0-3  months;  bench  work,  6-12  months; 
light  tool  work,  3-6  months;  heavy  tool  work,  3-12 
months;  in  air-brake  department,  toolroom,  or  brass  tool 
work,  3-6  months;  in  erecting-shop,  16-24  months.  The 
instructor  shows  the  apprentice  how  to  perform  each  op- 
eration assigned  to  him,  and  sees  that  the  work  is  done 
thoroughly.  He  thus  relieves  the  foreman  from  the 
necessity  of  instructing  apprentices,  and,  as  he  is  a  special- 
ist in  this  line,  the  work  is  much  better  done  than  formerly. 
It  is  understood  that  while  the  shop  course  is  going  on  the 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  313 

apprentice  is  also  working  in  the  drafting-room,  as  before 
mentioned. 

The  instruction  of  apprentices  is  quite  different  from 
school  work  of  any  kind,  and  the  primary  function  of 
the  course  is  to  teach  the  apprentice  to  "do  things." 
Mental  development  is,  of  course,  aimed  at,  and  comes 
as  a  result  of  the  continual  exercise  of  the  constructive 
faculty.  Practically  no  text-books  can  be  used  in  such 
a  course,  as  the  needs  of  the  pupils  are  so  varied.  Lec- 
tures, examinations,  and  recitations  as  used  in  school  have 
little  place. 

The  results  of  the  system  have  been  highly  gratifying 
to  the  company,  and,  although  the  experiment  has  been  in 
operation  but  a  short  time,  the  benefits  have  been  evident 
in  an  increase  in  shop  output,  a  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  spoiled  work,  and  increased  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
boys  to  prepare  themselves  for  trades  (including  even 
some  branches  which  a  few  years  ago  did  not  attract  boys 
at  all) ,  and  a  general  improvement  of  the  spirit  in  the  shops. 
The  shop  instructors  meet  from  time  to  time  to  discuss 
their  problems;  and,  as  they  work  through  a  central 
organization,  their  efforts  are  marked  by  unity  of  plan 
and  purpose. 

The  Committee  on  Education  of  the  American  Electric 
Railway  Association  is  now  formulating  an  apprentice- 
ship system  to  be  adopted  by  the  electric  railways,  as  has 
been  done  by  the  leading  steam  roads. 

The  New  York  Edison  Company  offers  educational 
facilities  through  an  Educational  Bureau  and  the  Edu- 
cational Committee  of  the  Association  of  Employees. 
The  company  has  prepared  technical  and  accounting 
courses,  in  both  of  which  attendance  is  voluntary.  The 
commercial  courses  prepared  by  the  Educational  Bureau, 


3i4  SAFETY 

however,  are  recognized  as  part  of  the  routine  work  of 
the  commercial  department,  and  instruction  is  given  on 
the  company's  time.  Employees  enrolled  in  these  courses 
are  required  to  attend  each  session  unless  excused. 

The  purpose  of  the  commercial  courses  is  to  render  to 
the  public  the  best  possible  service,  and  to  increase  the 
individual  efficiency  of  the  company's  employees.  The 
company  recognizes  that  employees,  particularly  those 
who  meet  the  public,  must  be  able  to  answer  questions 
and  qualified  to  .give  advice  on  any  reasonable  matter 
within  the  scope  of  the  company's  business. 

The  instruction  in  the  Edison  Company's  school 
resolves  itself  into  three  parts.  First,  the  employee  is 
taught  something  about  himself  through  instruction  on 
hygiene,  health,  and  recreation;  second,  he  is  taught  the 
basic  principles  of  salesmanship ;  third,  he  is  fully  instruct- 
ed in  what  he  should  know  about  the  company's  organ- 
ization, the  elements  of  central-station  business-getting, 
and  the  fundamental  principles  of  electricity. 

The  executive  staff  of  the  school  consists  of  a  manager, 
instructor-in-charge,  and  a  secretary.  All  school  sessions 
are  held  at  the  Edison  Auditorium,  44  West  2;th  Street, 
New  York. 

The  school  term  lasts  a  little  over  six  months.  The 
first-year  course  is  held  on  Mondays  and  Fridays,  from 
4  to  5.30  P.M.  The  second -year  courses  are  held  on 
Wednesdays,  from  4  to  5.30  P.M.  Inspection  tours  of 
the  central  stations,  typical  sub-stations,  and  meter-test- 
ing laboratory  are  made  during  the  school-year. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Association  of  Employees  of 
the  New  York  Edison  Company  technical  courses  in 
electricity  have  been  offered  to  the  employees  of  the 
company  for  the  past  six  years.  The  scope  of  this  educa- 


OLD-STYLE     INSTALLATION — WIRING     AND 

CUT-OUTS    EXPOSED    AND    MOUNTED    ON   A 

WOODEN    PARTITION 


SEALED  CUT-OUT;  FUSES  AND  WIRES 
INCASED  IN  PORCELAIN  OR  METAL 


SAFETY   DEVICES   FOR   CONTACT   WITH   LIVE   METAL   CONDUCTORS 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  315 

tional  work  has  been  very  carefully  considered,  and  as  a 
result  somewhat  special  courses  have  been  prepared  to 
bear  directly  on  the  work  of  the  company.  This  special- 
ization was  decided  upon  in  order  to  avoid  duplication 
of  the  educational  facilities  available  through  the  public 
and  private  evening  technical  schools. 

A  careful  study  of  the  available  methods  of  instruction 
led  the  Educational  Committee  of  the  Employees'  Associa- 
tion to  select  laboratory  work,  with  a  very  small  amount 
of  classroom  exercise,  in  preference  to  regular  lectures 
or  lectures  illustrated  with  experiments.  For  the  past 
three  years,  therefore,  these  courses  have  been  presented 
in  the  form  of  laboratory  exercises,  preceded  at  each 
session  by  a  talk  by  the  instructor,  in  which  he  briefly 
indicates  the  object  of  the  evening's  experiments  and 
outlines  the  conduct  of  the  work. 

This  plan  has  worked  very  satisfactorily,  as  the 
students'  interest  is  held  by  the  experimental  nature  of 
the  work,  while  the  assistant  instructors  in  charge  of  the 
squads  are  expected  to  round  out  the  discussion  of  the 
evening's  experiment  by  running  comment  during  the 
progress  of  the  test  and  while  assisting  the  students  in 
the  preparation  of  their  reports. 

Attendance  at  these  courses  is  entirely  voluntary,  but 
students  are  rated  only  when  they  attend  the  entire 
course  and  submit  complete  sets  of  reports.  These  re- 
ports are  marked  and  criticized  by  the  instructor,  and  the 
standing  of  the  rated  students  is  published  at  the  end  of 
the  term.  In  addition,  prizes  are  offered  for  the  students 
having  the  highest  standing  in  the  various  courses. 

These  experiments  are  scheduled  for  a  season  of  fifteen 
weeks,  and  the  students  are  assigned  in  such  order  that 
they  conduct  one  experiment  a  week.  The  course  is 


3i6  SAFETY 

given  on  five  evenings,  and  in  addition  an  afternoon  class 
is  held  once  each  week  for  the  benefit  of  night  workers. 
The  time  of  the  chief  instructor  is  entirely  devoted  to 
this  work,  while  the  assistants  are  obtained  among  the 
junior  engineers  or  other  qualified  employees  of  the 
company. 

The  laboratory  work  is  divided  into  three  graded 
courses  as  follows : 

COURSE  i.  An  elementary  course  of  experiments  illustrating 
the  fundamental  laws  and  principles  of  electricity  and 
magnetism. 

COURSE  2.  An  intermediate  course,  with  experiments  mainly 
illustrating  the  principles  and  operation  of  continuous- 
current  machines  and  apparatus. 

COURSE  3.  A  more  advanced  course,  with  experiments  de- 
signed to  illustrate  the  laws  of  alternating-current  cir- 
cuits, and  their  application  to  alternating-current  ma- 
chines and  apparatus. 

A  course  of  instruction,  prepared  for  the  accounting  and 
clerical  employees  of  the  company,  was  presented  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Association  of  Employees,  for  the  first 
time  during  the  season  1912-13.  This  course  offers  instruc- 
tion in  the  theory  of  accounts  and  on  the  methods  em- 
ployed in  the  company's  accounting  department.  It 
includes  lectures  on  the  work  of  the  other  important 
departments  of  the  company,  with  the  object  of  ac- 
quainting the  clerical  employees  with  the  technical  and 
commercial  activities  of  the  company. 

A  complete  system  of  registration  and  attendance  rec- 
ords will  be  in  force,  and  examinations  will  be  held,  with 
carefully  prepared  examination  papers,  at  the  end  of  each 
of  the  shorter  parts  and  at  intervals  during  the  longer 
parts  of  the  course. 

As  in  the  other  course  of  instruction,  attendance  will 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION  317 

be  open  to  all  employees  of  the  company,  but  only  those 
who  are  regularly  enrolled  will  be  examined  and  rated. 
These  regularly  enrolled  students  will  be  rated  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  attendance  and  the  marks  ob- 
tained on  their  examination  papers.  The  course  is 
conducted  in  the  evening,  and  attendance  is  not  compul- 
sory. 

It  is  expected  that  this  course  will  provide  instruction 
in  accounting  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  men  already 
engaged  in  work  of  that  character,  as  well  as  information 
in  regard  to  the  departments  of  the  company's  business 
with  which  the  clerical  employees  are  not  generally  well 
acquainted.  Thus,  it  is  not  proposed  to  offer  instruc- 
tion in  electrical  engineering,  but  to  illustrate  for  non- 
technical employees  the  functions  of  the  generating 
station,  the  sub-station,  the  mains  and  meters,  with  the 
object  of  increasing  their  efficiency  and  promoting  an 
intelligent  interest  in  their  work. 

The  company  maintains  a  valuable  library,  in  addition 
to  the  fully  equipped  school  laboratory,  in  which  are  to 
be  found  the  most  recent  publications  on  technical  and 
commercial  subjects,  with  reference  and  text  books  com- 
piled by  leading  authorities. 

The  library  is  open  from  10  A.M.  to  10  P.M.  to  ac- 
commodate employees  who  are  seeking  information  or 
assistance  in  their  special  lines.  The  company  subscribes 
for  many  important  American  and  foreign  technical 
journals.  A  file  of  daily  city  papers  and  a  large  number 
of  popular  magazines  are  other  features.  Comfortable 
seats  and  excellent  light  are  provided,  giving  great  at- 
tractiveness to  the  room,  which  is  well  patronized,  espe- 
cially in  the  evening  hours,  by  employees  who  are  making 
the  most  of  their  opportunities. 


318  SAFETY 

The  New  York  Edison  Company  congratulates  itself 
upon  being  the  first  electrical  company  to  undertake  a 
work  of  this  kind  among  its  employees.  The  results  ac- 
complished are  in  every  way  satisfactory,  and  worthy  of 
the  effort  which  the  undertaking  required. 


XX 

MEETING   THE    PUBLIC 

ENERALLY  the  head  of  an  industrial  business  can 
surround  his  factory  or  plant  with  a  high  fence  and 
thus  keep  out  the  unwary  public,  but  there  are  certain 
fields  of  industry,  such  as  transportation,  building  con- 
struction, underground  work,  and  the  distribution  of 
electrical  energy,  which  by  the  very  nature  of  their  opera- 
tions must  come  into  contact  with  the  general  public. 

It  becomes,  therefore,  part  of  the  daily  experience  of 
the  average  citizen,  but  especially  of  one  who  dwells  in  a 
great  city,  to  face  alarms  and  dangers  with  which  those 
of  the  battle-field  pale  into  insignificance.  He  may  meet 
with  accidents  in  front  of  moving  cars,  within  them,  or 
through  some  obstruction  of  the  right  of  way;  he  may 
receive  injuries  due  to  overcrowded  cars  or  to  some 
failure  of  electrical  equipment,  frequently  resulting  in  fire 
and  panic;  he  may  forfeit  his  life  to  automobiles  and 
heavy  motor  trucks  through  the  criminal  recklessness  of 
licensed  chauffeurs;  whenever  he  passes  a  sky-scraper  in 
course  of  construction  he  runs  the  risk  of  having  his  life 
crushed  out  by  the  failure  of  hoisting-apparatus  or  the 
fall  of  materials  from  great  heights;  he  may  suffer  injury 
from  the  careless  use  of  explosives  in  excavating  work, 
or  he  may  tumble  into  an  excavation  that  has  been  left 
unguarded;  and  he  may  be  instantly  killed  by  the  violent 
blowing  off  of  a  manhole  cover. 


320  SAFETY 

In  1911  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  New  York  City, 
72  persons  were  killed  by  surface  cars;  139  persons  were 
killed  by  horse-drawn  vehicles;  10  persons  were  killed  on 
elevated  railways;  10  persons  were  killed  by  subway 
trains ;  63  persons  were  killed  by  elevators  in  the  buildings 
of  the  borough.  From  the  evidence  brought  forth  at  the 
inquests  it  was  shown  that  at  least  75  per  cent,  of  the 
deaths  might  have  been  avoided  if  the  elevators  had 
been  equipped  with  safety  devices  and  proper  care  exer- 
cised in  operating  them.  Five  hundred  and  ninety-five 
deaths  were  caused  by  falling  downstairs,  from  windows, 
roofs,  and  on  sidewalks.  One  hundred  and  sixty-one 
deaths  resulted  from  fires. 

The  Public  Service  Commission  for  the  First  District 
of  the  state  of  New  York  in  its  report  for  the  year  ending 
December  31,  1911,  gives  a  long  list  of  accidents  and 
injuries  in  connection  with  the  surface  and  elevated  rail- 
ways and  subways  of  New  York  City,  including  all  the 
boroughs  of  the  greater  city.  Of  26,209  persons  injured 
in  connection  with  the  operation  of  the  city's  surface 
lines  3,590  were  employees  and  22,619  were  passengers  or 
pedestrians.  Out  of  this  total  number  of  injured  persons 
143  were  killed,  48  had  their  skulls  fractured,  27  sus- 
tained injuries  to  their  limbs  requiring  amputation,  261 
had  one  or  more  of  their  limbs  broken,  and  1,268  other 
persons  suffered  injuries  that  were  classed  as  serious. 

On  the  elevated  and  subway  lines  70  persons  were 
killed,  7  received  fractured  skulls,  7  sustained  injuries  to 
their  limbs  requiring  amputation,  54  had  one  or  more 
of  their  limbs  broken,  and  101  other  persons  suffered 
"serious"  injuries,  in  a  total  list  of  9,890  accidents  to 
passengers,  employees  of  these  railways,  and  pedes- 
trians. 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  321 

An  applicant  for  street-railway  service,  having  passed 
the  preliminary  mental  and  physical  requirements  de- 
manded by  the  employment  office  of  every  up-to-date 
electric-railway  company,  should  be  put  through  a  course 
of  training  that  will  prepare  him  in  advance  to  meet  the 
difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  actual  operation  of 
cars. 

It  is  not  enough  that  men  selected  for  car  service  have 
satisfactorily  passed  the  prescribed  mental  and  physical 
examinations,  but  they  should  be  required  to  present 
themselves  at  stated  intervals  for  further  examination 
to  prove  that  they  are  still  mentally  and  physically  fit  to 
perform  their  work.  In  all  cases  where  men  are  found  to 
be  deficient  they  should  be  removed  at  once  to  some  other 
department  of  the  road  where  the  safety  of  its  passengers 
does  not  depend  upon  the  physical  fitness  or  mental 
alertness  of  the  employee. 

The  motorman  should  be  required  not  only  to  know 
the  rules,  but  also  to  understand  the  machinery  and 
apparatus  that  are  placed  in  his  care — that  is,  he  must 
understand  why  a  switch  contacts  firmly,  why  a  fuse 
blows  out,  why  a  brush-holder  spring  should  not  be  left 
up.  He  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  meaning  of 
every  step  in  car  operation  by  having  demonstrated  to 
him  the  various  electrical  parts  found  in  the  classroom 
in  addition  'to  the  regular  service  work.  Sufficient  time 
should  be  allowed  the  future  motorman  to  comprehend 
and  assimilate  the  knowledge  imparted  to  him. 

The  selection  of  competent  instructors  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  because  of  their  responsibility  in 
forming  the  habits  of  the  student. 

The  learner  should  not  be  permitted  to  form  any  bad 
habits  in  handling  a  car,  for  if  a  bad  habit  is  once  formed 


322  SAFETY 

it  is  very  difficult  to  correct  it.  Neither  can  a  motorman 
afford  to  become  mechanical  in  the  operation  of  his  car. 

Great  stress  should  be  laid  by  the  chief  instructor  and 
by  motorman  instructors  upon  the  rules  as  to  spacing,  the 
speed  in  approaching  and  passing  standing  cars  and 
vehicles,  obstructions,  excavations,  travelers  in  the  high- 
way, track- junction  points,  and  other  rules  looking  to  the 
prevention  of  accidents. 

The  supervision  of  the  instruction  department  should 
not  end  when  a  man  is  turned  out  to  work  by  himself. 
On  the  contrary,  each  man  should  be  followed  up  daily 
by  traveling  instructors  until  he  gives  evidence  that  he  has 
formed  the  habit  of  doing  his  work  well  and  carefully. 

It  is  the  narrow  margin  by  motormen,  too  frequently 
measured  by  fractions  of  an  inch,  that  causes  many 
avoidable  accidents. 

The  motorman  should  know  during  what  periods  of  the 
day  and  at  what  places  on  his  route  the  major  number  of 
accidents  occur,  and  he  should  exercise  the  greatest  pos- 
sible care  at  such  times  and  places  to  avoid  accidents. 

It  is  also  very  important  and  necessary  that  the  new 
motorman  should  understand  that  failure  to  operate 
his  controller  properly  is  very  apt  to  cause  electrical 
troubles  with  his  motors,  controller,  circuit-breaker,  or 
main-motor  switches,  and  cause  those  blow-outs  that  are 
usually  followed  by  panic  and  injury  to  passengers,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  damage  resulting  to  the  equipment. 

In  addition  to  the  careful  selection  and  proper  instruc- 
tion of  men  who  are  mentally  and  physically  fit  to  repre- 
sent the  company  there  is  a  third  step  equally  important — 
namely,  the  duty  of  sustaining  the  interest  of  conductors 
and  motormen  in  their  work.  In  few  industries  do  in- 
telligence, stability,  skill,  zealous  interest,  and  fidelity 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  323 

on  the  part  of  employees  count  for  so  much  as  they  do  in 
street-railway  work.  Therefore,  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  street-car  company  to  awaken  in  its  car  crews  a 
greater  responsiveness  to  the  necessity  of  preventing  ac- 
cidents as  well  as  to  the  welfare  of  the  road  as  a  whole. 

Many  accidents  point  to  the  necessity  of  introducing 
some  means  of  keeping  the  mind  of  the  employee  alert,  as 
it  should  be  in  the  case  of  a  man  operating  a  car. 

To  secure  this  combination  of  interest,  alertness,  re- 
liability, and  intelligence  is  the  question  which  must  be 
solved  by  the  management  if  the  road  is  to  be  immune 
from  accidents  due  to  the  failure  of  employees.  It  is 
human  for  one  who  has  exercised  caution  day  after  day 
and  met  with  no  occurrences  requiring  such  caution  to 
relax  his  vigilance,  but  the  tendency  emphasizes  the  neces- 
sity of  repeatedly  impressing  caution  upon  the  minds 
of  men,  and  especially  those  of  the  older  men,  in  car 
service. 

To  be  sure  that  the  men  thoroughly  understand  the 
rules  it  has  been  suggested  by  the  claims  attorney  of  an 
electric  railway  in  one  of  the  large  Eastern  cities  that 
an  instructor  be  appointed  whose  sole  duty  would  be  the 
instruction  of  men  in  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
company.  Too  little  attention  has  been  given  this 
subject  in  the  past.  Superintendents  may  feel  that  they 
are  able  to  judge  whether  or  not  the  men  are  fully  con- 
versant with  the  rules,  but  in  general  there  is  no  way 
by  which  the  men's  knowledge  of  the  rules  and  of  what 
they  should  do  in  emergencies  can  be  so  well  gaged  as 
by  oral  and  written  examinations  at  frequent  intervals. 
In  many  cases  the  rules  were  adequate  to  have  prevented 
the  accident  or  trouble  on  the  cars  had  they  been  intelli- 
gently observed  by  the  employee  involved.  The  plan  of 

22 


324  SAFETY 

having  frequent  examinations  on  the  rules  trains  the  car 
crews  to  respond  quickly  in  cases  of  emergency  or  where 
decisive  action  is  necessary. 

It  has  been  recommended  that  the  leading  operating 
rules  of  a  company  be  periodically  published  in  the  form  of 
a  special  notice  delivered  to  each  employee  affected  by 
them,  illustrating  the  importance  of  the  rules  and  calling 
attention  to  some  accident  or  operating  trouble  that  re- 
sulted from  non-observance.  Employees  taking  exami- 
nations in  rules  should  be  paid  for  the  time  so  employed, 
unless  they  exhibit  such  ignorance  as  would  seem  to  de- 
mand stern  action  by  the  company. 

A  good  way  to  sustain  interest  in  the  rules  is  to  place 
from  time  to  time  in  each  car  vestibule  a  printed  card 
showing  some  of  the  leading  operating  rules  and  to 
require  each  conductor  and  motorman  when  changing 
ends  to  carry  his  list  to  the  other  end  of  the  car.  In  this 
way  his  mind  is  impressed  with  the  importance  of  these 
rules. 

A  rule  which  stands  to  the  fore  in  all  books  of  regula- 
tions issued  by  the  street -car  companies  concerns  the 
avoidance  of  accidents.  In  one  case  this  rule  reads  as 
follows : 

The  first  consideration  under  all  conditions  must  be  the  exercise  of  care 
and  caution  in  the  discharge  of  duties;  next,  the  regularity  of  the  service, 
always  having  in  mind  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  passengers  and 
the  interests  of  the  company. 

Another  rule  reads: 
Avoid  accidents.    Always  take  the  safe  course  in  case  of  doubt. 

Still  another  company  enjoins: 

It  takes  less  time  and  trouble  to  avoid  accidents  than  to  report 
them  after  they  have  occurred. 


MEETING*  THE    PUBLIC  325 

The  rule  against  alcoholism  stands  in  close  proximity  to 
that  for  safety: 

Drinking  or  carrying  intoxicating  liquor  in  or  about  the  premises  of 
the  company,  or  entering  any  place  where  liquor  is  sold  as  a  beverage 
while  in  the  uniform  of  the  company,  is  strictly  forbidden.  No  one  will 
be  employed  or  continued  in  employment  who  is  known  to  be  in  the 
habit  of  using  intoxicating  liquor. 

Experience  has  shown  that  car  crews,  when  personally 
appealed  to,  will  try  to  please  their  superintendent.  Fre- 
quent meetings  between  the  superintendent  and  the  men 
will  tend  to  develop  personal  dignity  among  the  latter. 
The  superintendent  should  talk  to  them  about  the  rules 
and  about  the  causes  of  the  accidents  which  happen  every 
day.  Each  man  should  be  made  to  feel  that  he  is  a 
safety  committee  all  by  himself,  delegated  to  prevent 
some  one  accident. 

When  an  accident  happens  in  a  city  street  the  crowd 
gathers  around  the  unfortunate  victim  lying  in  helpless 
agony.  Vague  suggestions  are  offered,  but  seldom  is  any- 
thing done  until  a  policeman  arrives.  Then  he  telephones 
for  an  ambulance.  Twenty  minutes  to  an  hour  may 
elapse  before  the  ambulance  arrives,  and  unless  a  doctor 
happens  to  be  passing  and  volunteers  his  services  nothing 
is  done  to  relieve  the  sufferer.  As  a  result  of  this  delay 
he  may  die  in  the  ambulance  or  shortly  after  reaching  the 
hospital.  Many  people  have  lost  their  lives  from  injuries 
that  would  not  have  proved  fatal  if  properly  treated 
a  short  time  after  they  were  sustained. 

It  is  ignorance  of  what  should  be  done  in  emergencies 
that  renders  the  by-standers  apparently  so  helpless,  al- 
though ignorance  sometimes  makes  the  efforts  of  well- 
meaning  individuals  who  rush  to  do  the  wrong  thing  even 
more  harmful. 


326  SAFETY 

To  protect  passengers  as  well  as  employees  in  the  event 
of  an  accident  the  street  railways  should  maintain  an 
efficient  first-aid  service.  First  of  all  it  is  essential  to 
have  a  medical  man  as  lecturer  to  demonstrate  the 
proper  methods  of  treating  common  accidents,  such  as 
fractures,  cuts,  burns,  and  electric  shock.  A  pamphlet 
containing  a  concise  summary  of  emergency  essentials 
should  follow  up  the  personal  training.  The  following 
serve  as  examples  of  the  printed  instructions: 

1.  Keep  cool. 

2.  Send  for  a  physician. 

3.  Keep  the  crowd  away  to  insure  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

4.  Examine  the  injuries  carefully  before  doing  anything. 

5.  Don't  touch  open  wounds  with  the  hands;    don't 
attempt  to  remove  dirt  or  apply  unclean  dressings  of  any 
kind,  as  infection  may  be  introduced  by  so  doing. 

Explanation  should  be  made  of  the  stretcher  and  the 
proper  way  to  lift  an  injured  person  onto  it,  of  adjusting  a 
sling  with  a  triangular  bandage,  emergency  treatment  'of 
injuries  to  the  scalp,  and  methods  of  bandaging.  A 
description  should  also  be  given  of  the  various  articles 
in  the  first-aid  packet  and  directions  for  their  use. 

It  is  important  that  the  men  be  shown  how  to  use  a 
newspaper,  a  piece  of  scantling,  or  even  a  cushion  from  a 
car,  for  splints,  as  it  is  recognized  that  in  many  cases 
there  will  be  few  facilities  at  hand  for  caring  for  the 
injured. 

The  result  of  such  instruction  is  to  make  the  men 
responsible,  as  they  realize  that  they  may  be  called  on  at 
any  time  to  minister  to  an  injured  passenger  or  fellow- 
employee. 

Employees  of  street-car  lines  have  the  same  chance  to 
rise  as  employees  in  general  have  in  every  large  corpora^ 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  327 

tion.  The  average  railway  company  keeps  a  record  of 
its  motormen  and  conductors,  and  in  the  event  of  a  va- 
cancy in  a  position  higher  up  preference  is  given  to  the 
individual  who  has  faithfully  and  conscientiously  ad- 
hered to  the  rules  of  the  company  and  shown  ability  in 
his  line  of  work. 

The  successive  grades  of  promotion  in  force  on  one 
large  Eastern  street  railway  are  as  follows:  from  motor- 
man  or  conductor  to  starter,  inspector,  general  inspector, 
car-house  superintendent,  chief  clerk  of  transportation 
office,  superintendent  of  transportation,  general  manager, 
vice-president,  president. 

All  of  the  men  at  the  present  time  holding  positions 
with  one  large  street-railway  company  as  starters,  in- 
spectors, and  up  to  the  office  of  chief  clerk  of  transporta- 
tion have  risen  from  the  ranks.  The  present  superin- 
tendent of  transportation  was  promoted  from  an  office 
position  to  his  present  place,  and  one  of  the  vice-presidents 
started  in  as  a  horse-car  driver.  This  street-railway  com- 
pany also  has  a  pension  system  in  force  among  its  em- 
ployees. 

While  applicants  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and 
thirty-five  are  received  for  the  position  of  motormen,  as 
far  as  possible  the  company  endeavors  to  fill  this  position 
with  men  who  have  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five,  be- 
lieving them  at  that  age  to  be  more  inclined  to  regard  the 
seriousness  and  responsibility  of  their  position. 

Another  large  railroad  company,  employing  more  than 
four  thousand  employees  in  the  classes  of  motormen,  con- 
ductors, inspectors,  starters,  and  despatchers,  advances 
the  wages  of  its  men  on  a  sliding  scale,  in  recognition  of 
more  efficient  service  from  experienced  men,  the  efficiency 
being  almost  entirely  a  matter  of  freedom  from  accidents. 


328  SAFETY 

Conductors  and  motormen  are  promoted  as  vacancies 
occur  in  the  operating  grades,  as  it  has  been  the  policy  of 
this  company  to  adhere  as  closely  as  possible  to  civil- 
service  promotion  within  the  ranks  in  filling  vacancies 
rather  than  to  obtain  employees  from  outside  sources. 
The  grades  of  promotion  are  about  as  follows:  from 
either  conductor  or  motorman  to  despatcher,  to  inspector, 
to  assistant  superintendent,  and  from  that  to  superin- 
tendent ;  at  the  present  time  a  number  of  superintendents 
are  men  who  have  come  up  from  the  lower  ranks. 

Permanency  of  its  force  is  an  asset  that  every  operat- 
ing department  earnestly  desires.  A  permanent  force  of 
workers  is  of  necessity  a  well-trained  force.  To  demon- 
strate the  relation  of  experience  and  training  to  accident 
prevention  the  Public  Service  Railway  Company  of  New 
Jersey  recently  made  a  unique  and  valuable  study  of  the 
accident  records  of  the  men  in  their  employ.  The  result 
of  this  investigation  showed  that  34.5  per  cent,  of  their 
men  had  been  in  the  employ  of  the  company  less  than  one 
year,  and  that  61  per  cent,  of  the  accidents  for  1911  were 
chargeable  to  these  first-year  men. 

The  cost  to  the  company  of  accident  settlements, 
exclusive  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  claim  department, 
for  the  first-year  men  was  found  to  be  $202.98  each, 
while  the  cost  per  man  of  over  one  year  of  service  was 
$66.82 — just  about  one-third  as  much. 

The  average  accident  cost  per  man  for  1911  for  periods 
of  one  to  four  years  was  $209.98  for  the  first  year,  $135.57 
for  the  second  year,  $83.23  for  the  third  year,  and  $47.35 
for  the  fourth  year. 

The  custom  of  paying  pensions  to  old  employees  in 
recognition  of  faithful  service  for  many  years  has  a 
stimulating  effect  upon  younger  employees,  tending  to 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  329 

make  them  more  careful  and  insuring  steady  and  con- 
tinuous employment. 

The  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Company  maintains 
for  the  benefit  of  its  employees  an  insurance  and  pension 
fund,  from  which  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  is  pay- 
able at  death  to  the  beneficiaries  of  any  employee  who  has 
been  in  the  service  of  the  company  continuously  for  a 
period  of  two  years  prior  to  his  or  her  death  and  whose 
compensation  from  the  company  at  that  time  does  not 
exceed  two  hundred  dollars  a  month.  Under  the  opera- 
tion of  the  pension  system  any  employee  who  has  been 
in  the  service  of  the  company  continuously  for  twenty- 
five  years,  who  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-five,  and 
whose  compensation  from  the  company  does  not  exceed 
two  hundred  dollars  a  month,  is  entitled  to  retire  from 
active  service  and  receive  thereafter  from  the  company  a 
pension  of  twenty  dollars  per  month. 

With  all  these  precautions  and  encouragements  for 
the  prevention  of  accidents  on  the  part  of  the  management 
it  does  not  seem  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  street- 
car company  is  always  at  fault,  as  the  general  public  is  so 
ready  to  believe.  The  public  itself  must  bear  a  large 
share  of  the  responsibility  for  accidents  which  happen 
daily  in  connection  with  street  traffic. 

Some  means  for  preventing  passengers  from  remaining 
on  the  platform,  thus  restraining  them  from  jumping  on 
or  off,  is  a  problem  awaiting  solution.  There  are  tech- 
nical considerations  of  management  and  traffic  involved, 
as  well  as  the  safety  of  the  passengers;  for  example,  more 
time  is  needed  to  open  and  close  the  doors,  and  as  the 
stops,  especially  in  large  cities,  are  short,  every  hindrance 
to  free  exit  or  entrance  at  stops  causes  delay  and  inter- 
ference with  the  running-schedule. 


330  SAFETY 

The  vicious  habit  of  jumping  on  and  off  cars  in  motion 
will  continue  until  the  passenger  meets  with  an  accident — 
then  the  victim  realizes  too  late  that  it  was  his  own  fault. 
For  an  accident  of  this  character  the  injured  cannot 
justly  claim  compensation. 

The  constantly  growing  development  and  use  of  auto- 
mobiles and  motor  trucks  have  resulted  in  increased 
fatalities  to  pedestrians.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
larger  cities.  According  to  the  annual  report  of  the 
coroner  of  New  York  for  1912,  in  the  Borough  of  Man- 
hattan there  were  one  hundred  and  forty-six  deaths  due 
to  automobiles,  an  increase  of  fifty-six  over  the  preceding 
year.  From  the  evidence  brought  forth  in  the  majority 
of  these  cases  it  was  clearly  shown  that  the  killings  were 
principally  due  to  carelessness  of  chauffeurs,  excessive 
speed,  and  the  failure  to  give  proper  warning  to  pedes- 
trians. 

The  relation  between  police  activity  and  the  public 
safety  is  a  close  one;  many  timid  persons  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  traffic  policeman  for  protection  against 
the  perils  of  a  dangerous  street-crossing.  Greater  vigi- 
lance on  the  part  of  the  police  and  the  prompt  arrest 
of  reckless  drivers  who  wantonly  violate  the  ordinances 
made  for  their  guidance  and  the  safety  of  the  public 
would  undoubtedly  result  in  a  marked  lessening  of  street 
accidents. 

The  ordinances  in  force  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United 
States  for  the  regulation  of  street  traffic  point  out  clearly 
the  respective  rights  and  duties  of  street  cars,  vehicles, 
and  pedestrians.  The  pedestrian  is  too  often  the  trans- 
gressor and  needs  to  have  a  deeper  sense  of  his  personal 
responsibility  while  on  the  streets. 

The  city  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  recently  adopted  or- 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  331 

dinances  having  in  view  the  elimination  of  a  class  of  street 
accidents  due  entirely  to  individual  carelessness.  Any 
one  who  jumps  on  a  moving  vehicle,  or  a  driver  who  per- 
mits any  one  to  jump  on  behind  with  the  feet  hanging  out 
over  the  tailboard,  is  now  subject  to  arrest  and  fine. 

The  police  department  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  has 
also  recently  issued  a  general  order  relating  to  the  danger 
of  stealing  rides  on  cars  and  vehicles.  The  order  reads  as 
follows : 

The  numerous  accidents  on  the  city  streets  resulting  from  children 
riding  on  the  sides  and  the  rear  of  cars,  trucks,  and  other  vehicles 
are  such  as  demand  the  attention  of  this  bureau. 

Lieutenants  are,  therefore,  hereby  instructed  to  at  once  issue  orders 
to  the  men  under  their  respective  commands  to  immediately  stop 
vehicles  whereon  children  and  young  people  are  in  the  habit  of  stealing 
rides.  This  practice  must  be  broken  up,  and  patrolmen  will  be  held 
accountable  for  any  dereliction  in  this  connection. 

Arrests  shall  be  made  on  sight,  and  those  arrested  (if  under  sixteen 
years  of  age)  shall  be  sent  to  the  House  of  Detention  for  a  hearing,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court. 

The  safety  problems  of  building  management,  including 
the  housing  and  daily  transportation — through  the 
elevator  service — of  a  population  equaling  that  of  a  small 
town  are  of  great  importance  to  the  city  dweller.  While 
it  may  not  be  at  once  apparent  to  the  building  superin- 
tendent confronted  with  the  problem  of  profitably  filling 
all  his  space  that  the  elimination  of  such  minor  perils  as 
insufficient  hand-rails,  worn  floor  surfaces,  slippery  steps, 
too  few  lights  by  day  and  night,  and  inadequate  illumina- 
tion of  elevator  entrances  is  good  business,  nevertheless  a 
consideration  of  these  matters  always  pays. 

In  the  keen  competition  for  securing  and  keeping 
tenants  the  building  manager  with  a.  reputation  for 
freedom  from  accidents  even  of  the  minor  sort  will  win 
and  hold  his  tenants. 


332  SAFETY 

Every  building  manager  is  only  too  familiar  with  the 
claims  for  compensation  following  severe  storms  and  due 
to  the  collapse  of  swinging  signs  and  awnings,  the  slipping 
down  of  slate  or  other  roof  coverings,  the  breaking  loose 
of  cornices,  and  other  accidents.  The  results  are  some- 
times fatal  to  the  public  within  the  danger  zone,  and  the 
management  of  the  building  suffers  a  money  loss  in  the 
cost  of  repairs.  The  main  point  is  that  through  inspec- 
tion and  precautions  for  safety  the  building  superin- 
tendent should  know  how  to  prevent  these  accidents. 

Even  if  the  outlay  for  inspectors  and  precautionary 
measures  does  not  produce  immediate  and  visible  cash 
returns  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  any  company,  in 
building  up  its  business  through  the  ordinary  advertising 
mediums,  is  presumably  paying  for  a  good  reputation  with 
the  general  public.  One  minor  accident,  to  say  nothing  of 
a  catastrophe,  will  destroy  much  of  the  favorable  opinion 
that  years  of  applied  engineering  skill,  backed  by  care- 
fully worked  and  high-priced  publicity,  may  have  helped 
to  create. 

One  ordinarily  thinks  of  transportation  as  moving  along 
horizontal  lines,  but  a  moment's  reflection  will  show  that 
the  ordinary  city  dweller  travels  many  miles  up  and  down 
daily,  especially  if  his  office  be  located  in  the  upper  floors 
of  a  Woolworth  or  Singer  building. 

The  problem  of  the  elevator  concerns  almost  every 
building  superintendent  in  the  modern  city.  It  is  the 
part  of  wisdom  to  be  sure  that  the  doors  are  made  to 
slide  and  are  provided  with  a  lock  so  arranged  that  they 
cannot  be  opened  from  the  outside  of  the  shaft  without  a 
key.  A  door-locking  device  prevents  the  opening  of  the 
entrance-doors  when  the  elevator  is  away  from  a  landing, 
and  also  makes  it  impossible  for  the  elevator  to  move 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  333 

away  from  a  landing  before  the  door  is  closed.  An 
elevator  not  provided  with  an  attendant  should  have  a 
locking  device  for  the  operating-cable,  so  that  when  the 
elevator  is  being  used  at  any  landing  it  may  be  locked 
in  order  to  prevent  its  being  moved  by  any  person  at 
another  floor. 

The  careful  building  superintendent  insists  that  the 
hoistways  of  his  freight  elevators  shall  be  inclosed  on  all 
floors  by  a  substantial  framework,  with  self-closing  gates, 
made,  wherever  practicable,  to  slide  vertically. 

Where  there  are  projections  in  the  hoist  way — such  as 
floor  headers — apron  or  toe  guards  should  be  placed  under 
them  so  as  to  prevent  injury  to  any  one  whose  foot  or  any 
other  part  of  his  body  extends  beyond  the  elevator  plat- 
form. All  elevators  should  be  roofed  over  to  protect 
persons  in  the  elevator  from  being  injured  by  falling 
material. 

Elevators  in  constant  use  should  never  be  operated 
indiscriminately.  It  frequently  happens  that,  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  person  last  running  the  car,  it  is  set 
in  motion  by  persons  on  another  floor,  with  the  result  that 
the  former  operator,  returning  to  the  car  with  the  expec- 
tation of  finding  it  still  in  the  position  in  which  he  left  it, 
falls  down  the  elevator-shaft  and  is  killed.  It  is  always 
well  to  remember  that  heavy  cases,  hampers,  and  other 
goods  are  often  placed  in  the  elevator  by  persons  walking 
backward  and  pulling  the  goods  in  after  them.  Similar 
accidents  may  occur  with  hydraulic  elevators  when,  owing 
to  a  leaky  valve  or  piston,  the  car  creeps  away  from  the 
floor  or  landing  at  which  it  has  been  left. 

While  loading  or  unloading  exceptionally  heavy  articles 
the  car  should  be  provided  with  a  device  to  support  it 
independently  of  the  cables  or  plunger.  Otherwise  the 


334  SAFETY 

car  may  jump  up  when  the  load  is  partially  removed  and 
cause  it  to  fall  forward  on  the  men  handling  it.  Similarly, 
the  car,  if  not  supported,  may  jump  down  while  it  is 
being  loaded. 

After  the  physical  safety  of  the  elevator  has  been  as- 
sured the  human  factor  must  be  given  equal  consideration. 
The  manager  must  feel  that  the  selection  of  an  elevator- 
operator  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  Whenever  it  is 
evident  that  an  operator  is  incompetent  or  untrustworthy 
he  should  at  once  be  replaced  by  one  qualified  to  perform 
his  duties. 

Every  new  operator  should  be  thoroughly  instructed  by 
some  competent  person  and  impressed  with  the  respon- 
sibility of  his  position.  Eighteen  is  the  minimum  age  pre- 
scribed in  most  places,  and  no  person  below  the  age  speci- 
fied by  law  should  be  employed  under  any  circumstances. 

The  manner  of  installing  and  operating  the  boilers  in  a 
large  building  should  also  be  a  matter  of  vital  concern 
to  the  owner  or  manager. 

In  discussing  this  point  with  Mr.  George  W.  Martin, 
the  general  manager  of  the  New  York  Service  Company, 
which  has  for  its  object  scientific  building  management, 
he  gave  as  his  opinion : 

The  American  business  man  seems  to  be  accustomed  to  take  some 
rather  long  chances  in  the  development  of  his  business;  the  risk  he 
runs  equals  his  indifference. 

It  frequently  appears  that  the  boiler-room  is  placed  in  some  out-of- 
the-way  corner  of  the  basement  for  which  no  other  use  can  be  found. 
This  makes  inspection  difficult  and  cleaning  a  task  to  be  dreaded. 

A  favorite  place  for  installing  boilers  for  moderate-sized  plants  is 
under  the  sidewalk.  The  object,  of  course,  is  to  save  space  in  the 
basement  of  the  building,  but  if  the  building  owner  realized  that  in 
many  cases  a  small  amount  of  space  is  saved  at  the  expense  of  econom- 
ical operation,  and  if  the  public  realized  the  great  danger  of  this  manner 
of  installation,  fewer  boilers  would  be  thus  installed. 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  335 

Apart  from  the  danger  to  pedestrians  overhead,  the 
chief  objection  to  the  location  of  a  boiler  under  the  side- 
walk is  that  the  space  available  is  often  sufficient  only 
for  the  boiler-setting,  without  adequate  space  for  cleaning 
and  inspection.  The  task  of  firing  a  steam-boiler  is  usu- 
ally no  sinecure,  and  when  the  further  burden  of  keeping 
inaccessible  parts  clean  is  placed  upon  the  fireman  the 
wonder  is  that  more  boilers  do  not  explode. 

As  is  well  known,  in  a  boiler  under  steam  the  larger 
part  of  the  boiler  is  filled  with  water  at  a  high  temperature, 
the  steam  generated  being  stored  in  a  proportionately 
small  space  between  the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  top 
of  the  boiler.  To  the  lay  mind  it  may  seem  that  the 
explosive  energy  is  contained  only  in  the  steam  generated, 
but  if  the  pressure  on  the  water  should  be  suddenly  re- 
leased by  a  failure  of  the  boiler  the  water  would  flash 
into  steam  as  quickly  as  gunpowder  is  transformed  into 
explosive  gases,  and  destruction  would  follow  in  the  wake 
of  the  expanding  force. 

The  following  newspaper  account  of  a  typical  boiler 
explosion  in  New  York  illustrates  the  destructive  force  of 
a  boiler  exploding  under  working  conditions.  Quoting 
from  the  Evening  Post: 

A  boiler  explosion  wrecked  the  basement  of  a  seven-story  brick 
building.  Although  the  estimate  of  the  damage  was  placed  at  only 
thirty  thousand  dollars,  the  fire-department  representative  who  ex- 
amined the  building  said  it  was  by  the  merest  chance  that  the  boiler 
did  not  effect  the  destruction  of  a  great  deal  more  property,  not  to 
speak  of  many  lives.  Had  it  turned  aside  in  its  course  it  would  have 
penetrated  the  foundation  of  a  warehouse  and  brought  down  the  front 
wall  and  most  of  the  floors  up  to  the  roof. 

As  it  was,  the  boiler,  situated  in  the  vault  beneath  the  sidewalk  in 
front  of  the  building,  shot  forward  like  a  gigantic  projectile  under  the 
pavement,  crashing  its  way  through  gas  and  ammonia  pipes,  water 
mains,  and  high-pressure  mains,  for  a  distance  of  half  a  block  to  the 
intersection  of  Greenwich  and  Hubert  streets,  where  it  came  to  rest 


336  SAFETY 

after  thrusting  half  of  its  length  above  the  sidewalk  and  discharging  a 
volley  of  tubes  into  a  tenement  on  the  opposite  side  of  Hubert  Street. 
Its  destructive  track  could  be  traced  by  a  long  straight  mass  of 
upheaved  flagging,  broken  pipes  and  mains  and  debris  of  the  roadway. 
Flames  were  already  rising  from  the  gas-pipes  as  the  frightened  resi- 
dents of  the  neighborhood  ran  out  into  the  street  believing  that  an 
earthquake  had  struck  them  and  half -suffocated  by  the  fumes  of  the 
ammonia  that  filled  the  air. 

A  boiler  may  become  unfit  for  use  in  a  few  years  if  it 
has  been  abused,  but  there  comes  a  time  when  even  a 
boiler  in  apparently  good  condition  should  be  retired 
upon  general  principles. 

There  are  doubtless  many  boilers  of  questionable  age  in 
operation  in  every  large  city  which  should  be  condemned. 

It  is  poor  practice  to  pass  a  law  compelling  engineers 
to  pay  for  a  license  to  operate  steam-boilers  in  order  that 
the  public  shall  be  protected  against  accidents,  and  then 
to  permit  old,  decrepit  boilers  to  be  operated. 

In  addition  to  steam-heating  apparatus  many  office- 
buildings  are  equipped  with  hydraulic  elevators  receiving 
their  power  from  steam-driven  pumping-engines.  Many 
office-buildings  also  contain  cafes  or  restaurants  where 
high-pressure  steam  is  needed  for  cooking. 

Of  course  for  a  building  now  standing  where  steam  is 
required  for  purposes  other  than  generating  electricity,  the 
problem  is  more  difficult  of  solution,  for  the  steam-driven 
hydraulic  pumps  must  be  replaced  by  electric-driven 
hydraulic  pumps,  and  the  steam-cooking  appliances  must 
be  replaced  by  gas-heated  appliances.  In  a  new  building, 
however,  the  installation  of  the  latest  type  of  electric- 
traction  elevators  and  cooking  appliances  using  gas 
together  with  current  purchased  from  a  central  station 
will  eliminate  the  necessity  of  using  steam  for  any  pur- 
pose other  than  heating  the  building. 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  337 

The  question  then  resolves  itself  to  the  advisability 
of  installing  boilers  to  generate  low-pressure  steam  or 
the  purchasing  of  steam  from  the  outside  for  heating  the 
building. 

From  a  safety  standpoint  there  appears  to  be  little 
choice  between  the  use  of  low-pressure  steam  generated 
in  a  boiler  in  the  building  and  the  purchase  of  steam  from 
the  street  mains.  Considerations  of  cost,  service,  and 
handling  the  coal  and  ashes  are  usually  the  determining 
factors. 

In  constructional  work,  especially  in  the  erection  of  tall 
buildings,  the  public  must  be  protected  from  the  dangers 
of  falling  materials  and  obstructions  carelessly  placed 
in  the  highway. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  construction  company's  engineer 
or  inspector  to  see  that  building  materials  are  carefully 
unloaded  and  placed  where  they  will  usurp  no  more  of  the 
street  and  sidewalk  than  they  properly  should,  thereby 
lessening  the  chances  of  proving  pitfalls  for  the  unwary 
pedestrian. 

There  should  be  a  standard  set  for  scaffoldings,  and 
only  the  safest  and  most  substantial  permitted  by  the 
building  inspectors  in  connection  with  the  erection  of 
buildings,  or,  in  fact,  all  overhead  work.  This  precaution 
is  imperative  not  only  to  secure  safety  for  the  men  obliged 
to  work  at  dizzy  heights,  but  also  to  prevent  the  falling 
of  scaffolds  and  materials  upon  pedestrians  below. 

In  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  New  York,  sixty  people 
were  killed  last  year  as  a  result  of  being  struck  by  falling 
materials. 

The  man  in  the  street  has  often  wondered  if  it  was  real- 
ly necessary  to  install  a  large  boiler  in  the  highway  during 
the  construction  of  a  building.  The  boiler  takes  up  good 


338  SAFETY 

space  in  the  street,  it  is  unsightly  in  appearance,  and  its 
accessories  add  to  the  general  untidiness  of  the  building 
operations.  "Why,"  queries  the  layman,  "in  this  day  of 
electrical  development  cannot  the  builder  or  contractor 
make  use  of  electricity  to  pull  up  the  excavating  teams 
and  hoist  the  building  material  ?"  There  is  always  present 
the  risk  of  a  boiler  explosion.  Then,  too,  in  every  city 
there  is  a  record  of  casualties  due  to  the  frightening  of 
horses  by  the  escaping  steam  long  enough  to  make  the 
outside  steam-boiler  a  serious  menace  to  the  safety  of  the 
public. 

While  excavations  are  being  made  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  shoring  up  the  sides  adjacent  to  sidewalks 
and  passageways  used  by  pedestrians.  Guard-rails  should 
also  be  placed  at  the  top  along  the  sidewalk.  For  the 
further  protection  of  the  public  a  sufficient  number  of 
lights  should  be  placed  around  street  obstructions  to 
prevent  teams  and  pedestrians  from  running  into  them  at 
night. 

The  dangers  from  open  cellar  doors  through  which 
goods  are  taken  into  buildings  and  ashes,  empty  barrels, 
boxes,  and  other  materials  removed  are  apparent  to  every 
pedestrian  who  has  stubbed  his  toes  against  such  obstacles 
in  his  way  and,  in  consequence,  has  almost  been  pre- 
cipitated into  the  cellar  beneath  his  feet.  The  same  con- 
ditions are  to  be  found  in  connection  with  the  delivery  of 
coal  into  the  storage-bins  beneath  the  sidewalk.  Not 
only  does  the  passer-by  suffer  the  inconvenience  of  being 
obliged  to  walk  out  into  the  street  in  order  to  pass  the  coal- 
wagon,  but  even  if  the  coal-chute  has  been  removed  and  no 
longer  bars  his  way  he  may  step  into  a  hole  carelessly  left 
unguarded  and  thereby  receive  serious  injuries. 

Manholes  should  never  be  left  unguarded.     A  better 


THE    NEW    YORK    EDISON    COMPANY'S    GUARDS    FOR    MANHOLE    IN    A    CITY    STREET 


UNSIGHTLY    AND    DANGEROUS    STREET    OBSTRUCTIONS 


MEETING    THE    PUBLIC  339 

method  of  guarding  these  openings  in  city  streets  should 
be  evolved,  perhaps  the  use  of  a  trap-cover  with  guard- 
rails attached,  which  rise  into  place  as  the  cover  is  raised. 
Such  a  type  of  guard  has  been  used  most  effectively  in  the 
busy  yards  of  certain  of  the  great  steel  plants  of  our 
country. 

The  covers  of  manholes  should  not  be  retained  after 
they  have  become  worn  and  slippery,  but  should  be  re- 
placed by  new  covers  offering  proper  resistance  to  the  feet 
of  passers-by.  In  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  last  year 
there  were  sixty -nine  deaths  due  to  falls  on  the  streets  and 
sidewalks,  a  large  percentage  of  which  were  caused  by 
slipping  on  manhole  covers  worn  dangerously  smooth  by 
the  feet  of  the  passing  crowds. 

The  general  public  is  also  greatly  interested  in  the  pro- 
tection afforded  it  in  connection  with  electrical  service. 
The  increasing  use  of  electrical  energy  has  accentuated 
the  menace  of  fires  and  bodily  injuries  due  to  exposed 
switches,  fuses,  and  open  service  wiring.  Not  only  live 
wires,  but  also  meters,  switches,  cut-outs,  and  other 
intricacies  of  the  service  must  be  properly  safeguarded. 

The  electrical  installation  in  office-buildings  and  apart- 
ment-houses is  frequently  found  to  be  very  hazardous. 
Wires  have  sometimes  been  left  hanging  loose,  thereby 
causing  injury  to  persons  who  have  accidentally  come  in 
contact  with  them.  Such  wires  should  be  entirely  covered 
and  placed  under  seal,  so  that  no  unauthorized  person 
may  gain  access  to  them. 

One  dangerous  installation  discovered  by  an  inspector 
had  its  meters  with  exposed  cut-outs  and  exposed  wiring 
all  mounted  on  a  wooden  partition  in  a  washroom.  In  the 
event  of  a  fuse  blowing  out  or  any  metallic  substance 

coming  in  contact  with  the  live  parts  it  is  apparent  how 
23 


340  SAFETY 

easily  a  conflagration  could  have  resulted  from  such 
equipment.  Fortunately,  this  installation  was  removed 
to  a  safe  corner  of  the  cellar  and  the  meters,  cut-outs,  and 
wires  protected  by  porcelain  or  metal  frames. 

In  connection  with  this  phase  of  safety  for  the  public 
Mr.  Thomas  E.  Murray,  of  the  Metropolitan  Engineering 
Company,  has  pointed  out: 

The  protection  of  the  watt-hour  meter,  the  service  wiring,  and  the 
service  cut-out  is  one  of  the  most  important  questions  facing  public 
service  companies  to-day.  With  a  view  to  eliminating  tampering 
with  the  meter,  fire  hazard,  and  irregularities  in  the  wiring,  each  meter 
and  service  installation  must  be  fireproof  and  tamper-proof. 

The  need  was  early  felt,  from  a  fire-protection  standpoint,  for  a 
service  cut-out  and  switch  as  near  the  service  entrance-point  as 
possible,  and  this  was  adopted  as  a  fire  underwriters'  ruling.  A  cut-out 
and  switch  at  this  point  became  standard  practice,  using  an  ordinary 
unprotected  knife-switch  and  a  non-sealable  cut-out.  The  fuses  in  the 
service  cut-out  are  often  blown,  due  to  overloads  or  short  circuits  on 
the  customers'  lines,  and  are  sometimes  replaced  by  customers  with 
copper  wire  of  much  greater  conductivity,  or  cross-section,  without 
notification  to  the  company.  Such  installations  are  a  serious  menace 
to  continuity  of  service,  and  where  the  capacity  of  the  network  is 
large  they  endanger  apparatus  in  the  customers'  premises. 


XXI 

TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS 

THE  complexities  of  our  modern  social  and  industrial 
organization  are  demanding  a  new  type  of  education 
if  the  children  of  the  present  generation  are  to  become  the 
efficient  wage-earners  and  contented  citizens  of  the  next. 

There  are  some  twenty  million  children  of  school  age 
in  the  United  States  to-day  who  must  be  educated  to  the 
efficient  use  of  hands  and  brains,  and  in  this  education 
there  should  be  included  some  understanding  of  simple 
laws  of  safety. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  see  that  there  is  given  to 
these  children  an  education  which  will  enable  them  suc- 
cessfully to  meet  the  problems  of  life  that  will  confront 
them.  Yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not  one-half  of  the 
children  of  the  United  States  are  receiving  this  kind  of 
training.  It  has  been  authoritatively  stated  that  one- 
half  of  the  school-children  of  the  United  States  leave 
school  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  and  that  85  per  cent, 
of  this  number,  lacking  training  and  direction,  helplessly 
drift  into  unprofitable  positions  in  which  they  have  few 
opportunities  for  advancement.  In  many  industries 
there  are  minor  positions  demanding  no  education  and 
little  skill  which  are  held  usually  by  boys  and  girls  just 
out  of  school  and  which  never  pay  more  than  a  child's 
wages.  Those  young  people  who  do  not  possess  the  ini- 
tiative to  make  efforts  at  self -improvement,  become  dis- 


342  SAFETY 

contented  with  the  low  pay  and  unsatisfactory  conditions 
of  work  and  frequently  leave  their  employment  to  become 
members  of  that  restless,  unhappy  'army  of  the  unem- 
ployed which  preys,  directly  or  indirectly,  upon  the  more 
fortunate  classes  of  society. 

From  all  over  the  land  industrialists  are  calling  for 
capable,  prepared  workers.  Industry  wants  skilled  work- 
ers, just  as  badly  as  men  and  women  want  positions. 

In  Germany  when  a  child  leaves  school  at  the  end  of 
his  fourteenth  year  his  education  is  by  no  means  com- 
pleted. On  the  contrary,  he  begins  a  course  of  training 
designed  to  meet  his  practical  needs,  develop  his  special 
abilities,  and  make  of  him  a  useful  and  contented  citizen. 
In  this  way  Germany  effects,  as  she  effects  in  so  many  of 
her  wise  institutions,  a  great  saving  in  her  national  life 
and  efficiency.  It  has  been  stated  that  66  per  cent,  of 
the  children  leaving  school  in  Germany  go  into  occupa- 
tions that  progressively  advance  them  in  skill  and, 
consequently,  wage-earning  ability.  They  go  from  school 
directly  into  apprenticeship,  thence  to  their  chosen  trades. 

To  meet  the  growing  industrial  need  of  our  country  the 
leading  business  men,  legislators,  and  prominent  edu- 
cators of  the  United  States  are  to-day  indorsing  the  plan 
of  vocational  or  continuation  schools,  the  value  of  which 
has  been  so  successfully  demonstrated  by  the  experience 
of  Germany  and  other  European  countries. 

In  Wisconsin  the  development  of  a  practical  plan  for 
continuation  schools  has  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
special  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education  working  in 
co-operation  with  local  boards  in  the  various  communi- 
ties. The  state  board  is  composed  of  employers,  manu- 
facturers, and  educators,  one-third  of  each  class  being 
represented;  the  local  boards  are  made  up  of  two  em- 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       343 

ployers,  two  employees,  and  the  city  superintendent. 
The  plan  gives  at  least  five  hours'  instruction  each  week 
to  children  in  employment,  the  wages  being  continued 
during  the  hours  spent  in  school. 

Wisconsin's  new  apprenticeship  law  requires  that  the 
apprenticeship  agreement  must  be  signed  by  the  legal 
representative  of  the  young  person  and  by  the  employer. 
The  agreement  must  state  the  amount  of  compensation  to 
be  paid  the  apprentice  and  must  also  provide  that  the 
whole  trade,  as  carried  on  by  the  employer,  will  be  taught. 

The  number  of  hours  to  be  spent  in  work  must  be 
definitely  stated,  as  well  as  the  number  of  hours  to  be 
spent  in  instruction,  the  total  number  of  hours  not  to 
exceed  fifty-five  in  any  one  week.  Of  these  fifty-five 
hours  not  less  than  five  must  be  devoted  to  instruction  in 
English,  citizenship,  business  practice,  physiology,  and 
such  other  branches  as  may  be  approved  by  the  State 
Board  of  Industrial  Education.  The  apprentice  is  not 
required  to  attend  school  during  periods  of  the  year 
when  the  public  schools  are  not  in  session,  but  for  failure 
to  attend  school  during  the  regular  terms  the  apprentice 
is  punished  by  losing  three  hours'  compensation  for  e very- 
hour  he  is  absent  without  cause. 

Many  of  the  manufacturers  in  Wisconsin  have  gladly 
brought  their  apprenticeship  systems  within  the  require- 
ments of  the  new  law  and  are  establishing  apprenticeship 
schools  in  their  own  shops,  or  sending  their  apprentices  to 
the  public  industrial  schools  in  their  communities. 

A  recent  law  of  the  state  of  Ohio  authorizes  the  local 
boards  of  education  to  open  continuation  schools  and  to 
require  the  attendance  of  all  between  the  ages  of  fourteen 
and  sixteen  having  working-papers,  unless  they  have 
completed  the  eighth  grade  of  school  work.  The  attend- 


344  SAFETY 

ance  must  be  in  the  daytime  and  must  not  exceed  eight 
hours  in  any  one  week.  The  Board  of  Education  of  the 
city  of  Cincinnati  was  the  first  to  put  the  continuation- 
school  plan  in  operation  under  the  Ohio  law. 

In  other  states  part-time  schools  are  being  conducted 
with  much  success.  In  many  of  the  industrial  centers  of 
these  states  local  employers  are  co-operating  with  the 
public  schools  by  alternately  sending  half  of  their  appren- 
tices to  school  one  week  and  keeping  the  other  half  at 
work  in  the  shop. 

Still  other  cities  have  developed  trade  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  regular  school  system.  In  these  schools, 
of  course,  the  students  are  without  income,  while  in  the 
part-time  schools  they  earn  wages  every  other  week,  and 
in  the  continuation  schools  are  paid  for  five  or  five  and  a 
half  days'  work  each  week.  In  this  respect,  as  in  many 
others,  the  continuation  school  seems  to  be  most  prac- 
tically adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  young  workers  who  have 
left  school  because  their  assistance  as  wage-earners  is 
needed  in  the  home. 

By  means  of  vocational  and  manual-training  courses 
the  school  systems  of  the  principal  cities  in  the  United 
States  are  beginning  to  demonstrate  that  many  children 
formerly  considered  backward  or  defective  may  be  de- 
veloped along  practical  lines  of  self-expression  to  intelli- 
gent and  useful  citizenship. 

Under  the  New  York  law  authorizing  vocational  schools 
the  increase  in  the  quantity  of  instruction  in  the  manual, 
household,  and  agricultural  branches  has  been  remark- 
able. 

According  to  the  last  annual  report  of  the  Board  of 
Education  of  New  York  City,  besides  the  manual  and 
home-making  courses  in  the  day  elementary  and  high 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       345 

schools,  there  are  two  day  schools  devoted  to  vocational 
training  and  six  evening  trade  -  schools,  three  of  high 
school  and  three  of  elementary  rank. 

In  the  state  outside  of  New  York  City  17,113  girls  are 
now  receiving  instruction  in  domestic  science  and  13,320 
pupils  instruction  in  the  manual  arts. 

At  present  there  are  35  industrial  and  trade  schools  in 
the  state  of  New  York  employing  145  teachers  and  having 
a  combined  day  and  evening  enrolment  of  6,303  pupils. 

The  New  York  law  specifies  certain  conditions  which  a 
vocational  school  must  meet  in  order  to  be  considered 
as  entitled  to  special  state  aid.  (i)  It  must  be  inde- 
pendently organized — not  necessarily  a  separate  building, 
but  established  with  a  distinct  vocational  purpose  in 
mind;  (2)  it  must  have  an  enrolment  of  at  least  twenty- 
five;  (3)  it  must  employ  the  full  time  of  a  teacher;  and 
(4)  it  must  have  a  course  of  study  meeting  the  approval 
of  the  commissioner  of  education.  The  fourth  condi- 
tion allows  of  considerable  latitude  and  discretion.  The 
course  of  study  is  not  defined  by  the  law;  it  may  vary  in 
different  localities  to  connect  with  local  industries,  which 
vary  in  different  parts  of  the  state. 

When  the  question  of  establishing  an  agricultural-school 
course  in  accordance  with  the  provision  of  the  New  York 
education  law  was  under  discussion  in  the  educational 
department  there  was  called  a  meeting  of  the  prominent 
men  in  the  varied  agricultural  interests  of  the  state,  such 
as  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  State  College 
of  Agriculture,  the  State  Grange,  various  agricultural 
societies,  the  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and 
the  state  schools  of  agriculture. 

For  the  girls  the  course  substitutes  household  economics 
for  some  of  the  agricultural  subjects  to  be  elected  by  the 


346  SAFETY 

boys  and  at  the  same  time  provides  for  some  agricultural 
elective. 

Girls  as  well  as  boys  may  be  admitted  to  the  regular 
agricultural  courses,  but  are  specially  advised  to  elect  the 
work  in  poultry-raising,  fruit-growing,  and  the  home  work. 

Already  this  type  of  education  is  appealing  to  young 
people  who  cannot  attend  school  every  day  or  for  the  full 
school  term,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
these  special  schools  may  become  the  centers  of  agri- 
cultural interest. 

New  York  is  the  first  state  to  undertake  the  training 
of  teachers  for  vocational  work.  At  present  there  are 
three  state  normal  institutions,  two  universities,  and  two 
technical  institutes  which,  are  training  teachers  for  one 
or  more  of  the  proposed  types  of  vocational  schools. 
The  last  two  classes  of  institutions  have  had  courses  for 
some  years  in  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  manual, 
household,  and  decorative  arts,  but  have  modified  and 
enlarged  the  scope  of  their  instruction  to  meet  the  more 
specific  and  practical  requirements  of  the  vocational- 
school  movement. 

The  next  generation  of  wage-earners  must  receive 
physical  training  now  if  they  are  to  withstand  the  wear 
and  tear  of  industry  and  if  they  are  to  know  how  to  pro- 
tect themselves  against  occupational  dangers.  To  this 
end  the  curriculum  in  many  schools  includes  courses  in 
physical  training  as  a  part  of  the  regular  school  work; 
and  through  setting-up  exercises,  light  calisthenics,  games, 
and  dances,  as  well  as  more  advanced  work  in  the  school 
gymnasium,  the  bodies  of  boys  and  girls  are  being  devel- 
oped in  fitness  and  powers  of  endurance. 

Special  attention  must  be  given  to  those  children  whose 
physical  condition  is  below  normal  and  who,  in  conse- 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       347 

quence  of  their  physical  defects,  fall  below  the  average 
in  intelligence  and  good  conduct. 

Of  the  258,784  school-children  examined  by  the  physi- 
cians of  the  Department  of  Health  of  the  city  of  New 
York  in  the  year  1911-12  only  74,452  were  found  to  have 
no  physical  defects.  The  number  examined  represents 
about  one-third  of  the  total  enrolment  of  pupils,  but 
the  total  number  of  children  suffering  from  defects  that 
impede  their  progress  in  school  was  probably  in  the  same 
proportion. 

Dr.  William  Martin  Richards,  an  eminent  eye  specialist, 
in  making  a  report  to  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  city 
of  New  York  in  December,  1912,  pointed  out  that  78,000 
children  in  the  public  schools  of  the  city  had  failed  of 
promotion  because  of  defective  eyesight. 

In  forty  difficult  cases  that  had  been  sent  to  him  for 
examination  and  treatment  Dr.  Richards  found  that 
more  than  half  of  the  children  were  ungraded,  and  the 
other  half  were  " backward"  children  who  had  spent  two 
or  three  terms  in  each  grade,  or  "delinquents"  who  could 
not  be  disciplined.  Thirty-two  of  these  children  were 
far-sighted,  three  near-sighted,  and  the  others  affected 
by  both  far  sight  and  near  sight.  After  these  children 
had  been  fitted  with  proper  glasses  the  reports  from  their 
principals  showed  in  each  case  a  remarkable  improvement 
in  study  and  conduct. 

One  hundred  and  thirty-nine  thousand  two  hundred 
and  sixty-six  of  the  children  examined  by  the  Board  of 
Health  physicians  in  the  same  year  were  found  to  have 
defective  teeth. 

The  importance  of  a  clean  mouth  and  sound  teeth  as 
fundamentals  of  good  health  cannot  be  overemphasized 
if  a  child  is  to  have  good  digestion  and  good  blood  and  be 


348  SAFETY 

free  from  the  diseases  of  the  throat  and  nose  resulting  from 
a  dirty  and  uncared-for  mouth. 

In  some  cities  the  care  of  the  teeth  of  school-children 
is  given  over  to  skilled  dentists  selected  by  the  board 
of  education ;  in  other  places  much  of  this  work  is  done  at 
free  dental  dispensaries,  as  in  the  city  of  Rochester,  New 
York,  where  the  dental  dispensaries  are  chartered  and 
regularly  inspected  by  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Charities. 

A  large  proportion  of  school-children  are  found  to  be 
suffering  from  malnutrition,  due  to  a  lack  of  food  or  to  the 
poor  quality  and  preparation  of  their  food.  Children 
suffering  from  malnutrition  are  unable  to  pay  attention 
to  their  studies,  hence  arises  the  need  of  providing  these 
children  with  wholesome  food  at  slight  cost  or,  in  the  case 
of  the  very  poor,  free  of  charge. 

A  few  years  ago  the  New  York  School  Lunch  Committee 
was  organized  by  philanthropic  persons  to  supply  whole- 
some lunches  at  cost  price  to  school-children  in  congested 
sections  of  the  city.  These  lunches  are  inspected  by  the 
regular  cooking-teachers.  The  quality  of  the  food  is  good, 
and  it  is  well  cooked. 

Nourishing  soups  are  served  at  a  cost  of  one  cent. 
The  soup  is  compulsory,  but  if  a  child  wishes  to  make 
further  purchases  he  may  select  what  he  wishes  from  a 
variety  of  other  foods,  principally  desserts,  on  the  penny- 
table.  Lunches  are  served  free  of  charge  to  those  who 
are  too  poor  to  pay  for  them. 

In  each  school  certain  pupils  assist  in  serving  the 
lunches,  receiving  their  own  lunches  free  in  payment  for 
their  services. 

The  benefits  of  a  nourishing  lunch  are  given  by  the 
director  of  this  work  as  follows: 


TRAINING    FUTURE    W.ORKERS       349 

1.  Improvement  in  physical  condition  and  manners. 

2.  Alertness  of  mind. 

3.  Less  indifference  and  laziness. 

4.  Better  afternoon  work  under  the  stimulation  of  the 
food. 

In  New  York,  as  in  other  large  cities,  open-air  classes 
are  maintained  for  children  suffering  from  tuberculosis 
and  anemia.  The  tubercular  children  are  cared  for  on 
ferryboats  and  on  the  roofs  of  hospitals,  while  the  anemic 
children  receive  their  instruction  in  special  classrooms, 
the  windows  of  which  are  kept  wide  open.  While  the 
results  attending  the  open-air  classes  are  fairly  satis- 
factory, it  is  felt  that  the  children  should  have  better 
opportunities  for  exercise  and  play  out-of-doors,  and  that 
the  time  spent  in  the  open  air  during  the  school  terms  is 
too  short  to  effect  speedy  recovery.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  a  better  plan  would  be  to  secure  land  in  the 
suburbs  where  shelters  could  be  erected  and  the  children 
kept  at  work  and  play  at  least  seven  hours  every  day. 

Open-air  schools  are  now  being  successfully  maintained 
in  the  suburbs  of  London  and  Berlin. 

Twenty  minutes'  ride  by  an  electric  car  from  the  heart 
of  Berlin  brings  the  visitor  to  one  of  the  newest  pedagogic 
and  prophylactic  institutions  in  Germany.  On  leaving 
the  train,  winding  paths  leading  through  the  woods 
bring  the  visitor  to  the  Grunewald  Forest  School  in 
Charlottenburg,  situated  on  the  high  ground  near  the 
Capital  Villa  Colony,  West  End. 

Children  arrive  on  foot  or  by  special  train  in  the 
morning.  With  their  teachers  they  assemble  for  break- 
fast. One-half  of  the  children  have  lessons  from  eight 
to  ten  and  the  other  half  from  ten-thirty  to  twelve-thirty. 
There  are  twelve  classes  composed  of  twenty  children 


3so  SAFETY 

each.  Each  lesson  lasts  twenty-five  minutes,  with  five 
and  ten  minute  intervals  for  recess.  Boys  and  girls  are 
together  in  the  classes.  During  the  free  morning  hours 
the  children  do  their  lessons  or  play  out-of-doors.  When 
dinner  comes  the  main  part  of  their  daily  school  work  is 
finished.  The  upper  classes  have  lessons  from  three  to 
four  in  the  afternoon,  but  on  some  days  this  period  is 
devoted  to  gymnastics  and  baths.  The  children  have  a 
light  luncheon  at  four  o'clock,  and  after  this  the  time  is 
their  own,  until  supper,  for  play.  They  are  given  five 
meals  a  day;  all  the  plates,  cups,  rest-chairs,  blankets, 
extra  shoes  and  stockings  are  marked  by  numbers,  so 
that  each  child  may  always  have  his  own. 

The  Forest  School  covers  about  two  acres  of  ground, 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  forest  by  wire  fences. 
There  are  dwelling-rooms  for  the  housekeeper,  servants' 
quarters,  and  two  open  halls  where  the  children  have  their 
rest  and  sometimes  lessons,  but  whenever  possible  the 
classes  are  held  out-of-doors. 

There  is  a  school  garden  where  each  child  has  his  own 
little  patch  for  flowers  for  which  he  is  responsible;  in 
addition  there  are  larger  beds  for  flowers  and  vegetables 
used  for  demonstration  purposes.  Each  child  has  a  warm 
shower-bath  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and  those  chil- 
dren needing  them  have  special  baths  prescribed  by  the 
physician. 

This  school  in  the  open  is  controlled  by  the  School 
Board  of  Charlottenburg.  The  women's  patriotic  league 
supplies  the  household  barracks  free  of  expense  and  the 
food  and  household  supplies  at  cost.  The  housekeeper  is 
a  trained  nurse  who  looks  after  the  bathing  and  other  phys- 
ical needs  of  the  children.  A  regular  physician  is  attached 
to  the  school,  together  with  a  regular  staff  of  teachers. 


A   FOREST   SCHOOL   FOR   WEAKLY   GERMAN   CHILDREN 


MUNICH   MUSEUM    OF   SAFETY 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS        351 

The  pupils  are  selected  from  the  public  schools  by  their 
class  -  teachers  and  principals  and  recommended  to  the 
Board  of  Education.  The  physician  of  the  Forest  School 
then  decides  whether  the  pupils  so  selected  shall  be  re- 
ceived. 

The  school  in  the  forest  is  open  from  the  beginning  of 
April  to  late  autumn ;  one  year  it  was  open  until  the  twen- 
ty-second of  December.  The  children  are  allowed  to  come 
to  the  Forest  School  on  Sundays  also  and  during  vacation. 

Realizing  that  the  accidents  to  the  general  public,  but 
especially  to  children,  on  our  city  streets  were  increasing 
at  an  alarming  rate,  the  American  Museum  of  Safety, 
in  the  summer  of  1912,  decided  that  an  educational  cam- 
paign among  the  children  themselves  would  be  the  best 
means  of  preventing  these  accidents  and  of  reducing  the 
waste  of  human  lives  and  limbs. 

Accident  prevention  is  primarily  a  matter  of  education, 
and  the  hope  for  sound  and  efficient  citizens  in  the  future 
lies  in  training  the  children  of  the  present  generation  to 
think  and  act  along  lines  of  safety  and  caution  on  the 
streets  and  in  their  homes. 

In  this  matter  it  was  felt  that  America  could  profit  by 
the  example  of  Germany,  which  is  educating  her  school- 
children in  safety  and  hygiene  and  preparing  them  for 
the  actual  conditions  they  must  meet  when  they  have 
exchanged  the  classroom  for  the  shop  and  factory.  The 
educational  methods  adopted  by  Germany  include  special 
loan  exhibits  to  the  schools  from  the  great  German 
museums  of  safety;  school  visits  to  the  museums,  where 
the  life-saving  and  health-promoting  devices  are  care- 
fully demonstrated  and  explained  to  the  children;  and  by 
instruction  in  safety  and  hygiene  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
school  curriculum. 


3S2  SAFETY 

With  the  consent  of  Dr.  Maxwell,  superintendent  of 
schools  of  the  city  of  New  York,  several  classes  of  vacation- 
school  children,  accompanied  by  their  teachers,  visited 
the  museum  during  the  summer.  The  responsiveness  of 
the  children  and  the  indorsement  by  their  teachers  of  the 
short  talks  on  safety  and  caution  and  the  demonstrations 
of  devices  clearly  indicated  the  success  of  the  experiment. 
The  children  eagerly  absorbed  the  instruction  given  them 
and  answered  with  intelligence  the  questions  asked  them 
with  a  view  to  determining  their  understanding  of  the 
uses  and  purposes  of  the  various  devices  explained  to 
them. 

In  the  fall  of  1912  the  American  Museum  of  Safety 
offered  to  carry  its  work  into  the  schools,  that  all  of  the 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  public-school 
children  might  receive  the  benefits  of  this  special  instruc- 
tion. The  Board  of  Superintendents  of  the  public  schools 
of  New  York  City  were  heartily  in  favor  of  the  plan,  and 
after  formal  deliberation  submitted  a  resolution  to  the 
Committee  on  Elementary  Schools,  asking  permission  of 
the  Board  of  Education  to  co-operate  with  the  museum 
for  the  purpose  of  reducing  accidents  among  the  school- 
children. 

This  resolution  was  promptly  indorsed  by  the  com- 
mittee, and  by  it  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Education 
with  the  recommendation  that  the  request  of  the  Board 
of  Superintendents  be  granted.  The  resolution,  as  for- 
mally adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education  on  November 
13,  1912,  reads  as  follows: 

Resolved,  That  permission  be,  and  it  is  hereby,  granted  to  the 
Board  of  Superintendents  to  make  arrangements  with  the  American 
Museum  of  Safety  for  co-operation  between  the  schools  and  said 
museum,  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  yearly  loss  of  life  and  limb 
among  the  children  attending  the  schools  of  the  city  of  New  York. 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       353 

In  connection  with  this  resolution  Associate  City 
Superintendent  Straubenmuller  presented  a  special  re- 
port: 

In  the  year  1911  423  persons  in  this  city  were  killed  by  vehicles. 
The  death-toll  was  13  per  cent,  higher  than  in  1910.  During  the 
same  period  2,004  persons  were  injured  by  vehicles.  For  the  nine 
months  ending  September  i,  1912,  there  were  killed  on  the  streets  of 
New  York  City  by  vehicles  339  persons.  Of  this  number  117  deaths 
were  duetto  wagons,  86  to  street-cars,  and  136  to  automobiles.  Of 
those  killed  the  greater  number  were  children. 

The  very  rapid  growth  of  the  modern  large  city,  unexpected  and 
unprovided  for,  has  deprived  the  children  of  yards  and  playgrounds. 
The  street  of  the  city  is  in  many  sections  the  only  available  play  place. 
To  this  fact  as  much  as  to  anything  else  is  due  the  great  daily  sacrifice  in 
life  and  limb.  The  great  industrial  and  commercial  development 
within  the  confines  of  the  modern  large  city  has  reduced  to  a  minimum 
the  moral  dangers  of  the  street,  and  increased  to  an  alarming  extent 
the  physical  dangers.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  modern  large  city 
has  forced  many  problems  onto  us  which  call  for  solution,  but  probably 
none  calls  more  urgently  nor  more  immediately  for  solution  than  the 
problem  of  the  protection  of  life  and  limb  of  children  as  well  as  of  adults. 

It  is  right  that  the  ^child  should  be  trained  to  think  and  act  along 
lines  of  safety  and  caution  on  the  street,  in  the  shop,  and  at  home. 
At  any  rate,  the  dangers  of  the  street,  the  shop,  and  the  home  should 
be  brought,  to  its  notice  so  that  it  may  at  least  be  forewarned. 

European  countries  have  taken  up  in  their  schools  the  subject  of 
safety  to  life  and  limb,  and  the  work  of  caution  has  been  successfully 
introduced  in  California,  Washington,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  New  Jersey.  Our  country  has  acquired  a  bad  name  for 
its  slight  estimate  of  human  life.  Here  as  elsewhere  the  enactment 
of  proper  laws  and  the  enforcement  of  the  same  are  slow  processes. 
It  is  possible  while  awaiting  state  action  to  save  some  lives  by  school 
action.  Thus,  since  instruction  in  this  subject  by  lecture  was  intro- 
duced in  New  Jersey,  the  accidents  to  school -children  for  the  six 
months  ending  September  i,  1912,  were  44  per  cent,  less  than  during 
the  same  period  last  year. 

The  American  Museum  of  Safety  has  trained  lecturers  in  the  field 
who  visit  the  schools  and  speak  to  the  assembled  children  on  the  sub- 
ject of  caution  and  how  to  avoid  the  dangers  that  lie  in  wait  for  them 
in  the  street  and  elsewhere. 

The  museum  is  also  ready  to  inaugurate  a  system  of  traveling 
exhibits  illustrative  of  dangers  to  eye,  ear,  throat,  etc.,  to  welcome 
teachers  and  pupils  at  the  museum,  and  to  do  all  in  its  power  to  co- 


354  SAFETY 

operate  with  the  Board  of  Education  in  reducing  the  casualties  to 
children.  It  furthermore  proposes  to  furnish  the  lecturers  and  travel- 
ing exhibits  without  any  expense  to  the  Board  of  Education. 

December  10,  1912,  the  museum  commenced  the  work 
of  instructing  the  school-children  in  the  importance  of 
safety  and  the  need  for  caution  on  the  streets.  Their 
representatives  visit  the  various  schools  according  to 
carefully  planned  schedules.  The  little  stories  %of  acci- 
dents and  brief  talks  on  safety  are  illustrated  by  charts 
and  models  of  safety  devices  specially  prepared  for  this 
educational  work. 

The  pupils  meet  in  the  assembly-room.  Sometimes 
these  audiences  are  very  large,  numbering  as  many  as 
twenty-five  hundred  boys  and  girls.  At  the  close  of 
each  safety  talk  neat  and  attractive  buttons  bearing  the 
insignium  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  are  left  with 
the  principal  of  the  school  for  distribution  among  the 
children.  The  wearing  of  this  button  makes  the  child 
a  member  of  the  museum's  Safety  League  and  serves 
to  keep  the  lessons  of  the  talk  fresh  in  mind.*  Badges 
of  a  little  better  quality  and  of  more  artistic  design 
are  presented  to  the  teachers  and  to  the  pupils  of  the 
higher  grades. 

The  buttons  are  followed  at  intervals  by  safety  leaflets, 
or  stories,  on  the  special  dangers  of  street-cars,  electricity, 
gas,  automobiles,  and  matches.  Both  text  and  illus- 
trations are  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the  children, 
who  appear  to  be  delighted  with  them. 

Not  only  are  the  public  schools  included  in  this  edu- 
cational campaign  for  safety,  but  also  the  parochial  and 
private  schools,  adding  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  boys  and  girls  to  the  seven  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  thousand  children  in  the  regular  public-school 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS        355 

system.  To  date  the  museum's  lectures  have  reached 
two  hundred  thousand  children  in  the  public  schools, 
parochial  schools,  and  the  schools  maintained  by  the 
Children's  Aid  Society.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that 
the  children  in  the  last-mentioned  schools  offer  a  most 
fertile  field  for  this  educational  work.  They  are  the 
children  of  foreigners,  mostly  Italians,  and  some  of  them 
of  foreign  birth  themselves.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  officers 
and  teachers  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society  to  instil 
American  ideas  of  personal  cleanliness  and  morality  into 
these  children,  in  addition  to  teaching  them  the  English 
language  and  preparing  them  for  the  regular  public  schools. 
These  schools  are  charitable  as  well  as  educational  cen- 
ters, and  carry  relief  into  the  homes  of  pupils  where  there 
is  sickness  or  great  poverty.  Believing  that  well-nour- 
ished bodies  are  essential  to  the  success  of  educational 
methods,  these  schools  furnish  the  children  with  food  dur- 
ing the  school-day,  the  first  meal  consisting  of  a  glass  of 
milk,  and  the  second,  served  at  eleven  o'clock,  consisting 
of  a  bowl  of  hot  soup  accompanied  by  a  generous  portion  of 
bread. 

It  was  while  working  in  one  of  the  most  congested  sec- 
tions of  the  city,  where  the  Children's  Aid  Schools  are 
principally  conducted,  that  one  of  the  museum's  lecturers 
became  more  than  ever  convinced  of  the  necessity  for 
the  educational  work  in  which  the  museum  is  now  en- 
gaged if  the  modern  city  is  to  produce  law-abiding, 
public-spirited  citizens,  and  not  a  race  of  hoodlums  and 
desperadoes.  As  the  automobile  in  which  she  was  pro- 
ceeding to  the  next  school  on  the  schedule  made  its  way 
slowly  through  the  tide  of  humanity  and  traffic  filling 
the  narrow  street,  she  saw  the  children  spinning  their 
tops,  playing  tag,  and  chasing  each  other,  or  wrestling 

24 


356  SAFETY 

in  groups  and  tumbling  down  in  squirming  heaps — all 
in  the  middle  of  the  street,  and  apparently  unmindful  of 
the  constantly  passing  automobiles  and  heavy  wagons. 
When  the  automobile  stopped  for  a  minute,  ,a  horde  of 
small  boys  swarmed  over  it,  hanging  on  wherever  they 
could  lay  their  grimy  little  hands,  and  some  of  them  de- 
liberately scratching  the  brightly  painted  body  of  the 
car  with  their  finger-nails  for  the  pleasure  of  making 
marks  upon  it.  When  the  chauff eur  spoke  to  one  boy  and 
bade  him  step  back,  the  lad  struck  the  driver  on  the 
knee  and  then  drew  away  with  a  great  air  of  bravado. 
As  the  car  proceeded,  dodging  in  behind  other  vehicles 
and  out  of  the  way  of  the  children  playing  in  the  street, 
another  boy  threw  a  stick  at  the  chauffeur,  hitting  him 
across  the  knuckles.  Throughout  that  trip,  as  on  sub- 
sequent trips,  it  was  observed  that  the  children  made  the 
crowded  streets  their  playgrounds,  and  the  wonder  is 
that  the  daily  toll  of  accidents  is  not  greater. 

In  some  of  the  densely  populated  sections  conversation 
with  the  principals  of  schools  has  disclosed  the  fact  that 
many  accident  cases  are  "faked'*  by  parents,  who  deliber- 
ately expose  their  children  to  danger  or  swear  that  the 
children  have  been  injured,  securing  the  assistance  of 
false  witnesses  and  of  shyster  lawyers  to  substantiate 
their  claims  for  "damages"  upon  the  public-service  cor- 
porations. In  some  instances  teachers  have  been  ap- 
proached by  these  "lawyers"  for  testimony  to  strengthen 
the  claims,  even  when  the  testimony  desired  bears  not 
the  slightest  relation  to  the  facts  as  the  teacher  knows 
them. 

In  the  talks  given  by  the  museum  lecturers  honesty 
and  integrity  of  character  are  strongly  impressed  upon 
the  children  in  connection  with  their  actions  upon  the 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       357 

streets.  Thus  far  every  principal  has  been  found  to  be 
in  heartiest  accord  with  the  work,  believing  that  it  will 
have  beneficial  results,  not  only  with  the  children,  but 
upon  the  neighborhoods  from  which  they  are  drawn. 

The  following  letter  is  typical  of  the  communications 
from  educators  received  at  the  museum: 

MR.  ARTHUR  WILLIAMS,  March  7,  1913. 

President. 

DEAR  SIR, — I  believe  your  safety  work  is  valuable,  especially  in 
crowded  neighborhoods  such  as  this.  We  are  constantly  warning  the 
children  of  the  dangers  in  the  street;  but,  in  spite  of  our  efforts,  dis- 
tressing accidents  occur,  and  I  feel  that  any  organized  effort  which 
brings  the  realization  of  the  danger  closer  to  the  children  is  a  good 
thing.  I  think,  too,  you  have  adopted  a  good  method.  The  use  of 
charts  and  other  objective  material  greatly  strengthens  the  impression 
made  by  the  speaker,  and  the  wearing  of  the  button  is  a  constant 
reminder. 

Wishing  you  all  success  in  your  campaign  of  mercy,  I  am, 

Very  truly  yours, 

JESSIE  B.  COLBURN, 
Principal,  P.  S.  io6}  Manhattan. 

The  following  selections  from  letters  written  by  the 
children  themselves  testify  eloquently  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  safety  instruction  has  been  received  by  them: 

I  thank  you  for  all  that  you  told  us  about  the  cars.  I  look  both 
ways  before  crossing  the  street.  I  am  forever  thinking  about  it. 
I  always  look  on  my  button.  I  wish  you  would  come  again. 

Your  little  friend, 

MATILDA  PANSKY. 

All  the  girls  like  the  button.  Thank  you  also  for  the  story-books 
that  you  sent  us.  I  told  my  mother  to  be  careful  using  the  gas-range — 
to  open  it  before  lighting  the  oven. 

Your  little  friend, 

REBECCA  LINSKY. 

I  told  my  brother  not  to  hitch  on  the  wagons.  I  never  thought  so 
much  about  the  dangers  before.  Whenever  I  cross  the  streets  my 
button  reminds  me  of  the  cars.  SOPHIE  SASONKIN. 


358  SAFETY 

All  the  girls  in  my  class  wear  their  buttons.  We  never  thought 
before  of  the  danger  you  told  us  about. 

Your  little  friend, 

HELEN  YOUNGER. 

I  enjoyed  the  lecture  you  gave  us.  I  learned  a  great  deal  from  it. 
I  told  my  brother  about  hitching  on  automobiles,  wagons,  and  cars, 
and  my  mother  about  the  stove. 

Your  loving  friend, 

YETTA  LUSCHINSKY. 

I 

I  learned  something  from  your  lecture  and  told  my  mother  about 
the  stove.  I  wear  the  button  every  day.  I  told  my  friend  to  be 
careful.  I  never  thought  of  so  much  danger  before. 

Your  little  friend, 

GUSSIE  SKOUREINSKY. 

The  same  afternoon  as  I  went  home  I  tried  to  study  the  lesson 
you  have  taught  us,  and  I  succeeded.  I  will  never  jump  on  moving 
cars,  and  never  touch  any  wires  again. 

Yours  respectfully, 

ISADORE   NUSKIN. 

The  red  button  will  help  me  remember  to  set  the  safety  example. 
I  told  my  parents  all  about  it.  They  will  try  to  set  the  safety  example 
too. 

Gratefully  yours, 

4         LILLIAN  RICHMAN. 

When  I  came  home  from  school  on  Tuesday  I  looked  at  the  fire- 
escape,  I  saw  boxes  on  it,  so  I  told  my  mother  about  it,  and  she  cleaned 
it  off .  I  also  remember  what  you  said  about  rolling  on  the  floor  when 
your  clothes  are  on  fire. 

Yours  respectfully, 

AARON  FELDHERR. 

For  the  cumulative  effect  of  a  concerted  effort  to  drive 
home  a  lesson  of  safety  and  caution  to  every  child  in  the 
greater  New  York  the  suggestion  was  made  by  Mr. 
Arthur  Williams  that  every  school-teacher  in  the  city 
should  deliver  a  safety  talk  on  the  same  day  and  at  the 
same  hour,  in  the  classrooms.  The  practical  result  of 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS        359 

this  concentration  will  be  that  18,000  teachers  will  reach 
785,000  children.  Mr.  A.  A.  Anderson,  chairman  of  the 
museum's  educational  section,  has  had  a  reading  lecture 
prepared,  entitled  "Safety  and  Caution" — a  suggestion 
which  the  teacher  can  read  to  the  class,  or,  preferably,  as- 
similate as  the  basis  for  a  talk  to  the  pupils.  No  partic- 
ular anecdotes  have  been  added,  as  each  teacher  will 
recall  many  an  illustrative  fact  which  can  be  used  in  re- 
inforcing a  special  point  in  the  text. 

Mr.  Williams 's  idea  met  with  cordial  response  from  the 
Board  of  Education,  as  attested  by  this  letter  from  its 
superintendent : 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

Office  of 

THE   CITY   SUPERINTENDENT    OF   SCHOOLS 

500  PARK  AVENUE,  March  7,  1913. 
MR.  ARTHUR  WILLIAMS, 

President,  American  Museum  of  Safety, 

29  West  39th  Street,  Manhattan. 

DEAR  SIR, — The  Committee  on  Elementary  Schools  and  the  Board 
of  Superintendents  have  approved  your  suggestion  that  on  the  same 
day  and  at  the  same  hour  in  every  public  school  in  this  city  each 
teacher  shall  give  a  talk  on  "Safety." 

The  Board  of  Superintendents  has  selected  April  4th  at  two  o'clock 
as  the  time  when  these  lectures  shall  be  delivered,  and  I  have  been 
requested  to  notify  the  principals  of  the  schools  to  this  effect,  and  to 
transmit  with  the  letter  of  notification  the  text  of  the  lecture. 

Yours  very  truly, 

WM.  H.  MAXWELL, 
Chairman,  Board  of  Superintendents. 

The  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company  is  rendering 
valuable  co-operation  in  this  effort  to  instil  in  the  minds 
of  the  children  the  necessity  of  exercising  caution  on  the 
streets,  and  in  boarding  and  alighting  from  surface-cars, 


SAFETY 


by  furnishing  the  museum  with  model  cars  to  be  used  in 
the  lectures,  and  by  placing  its  delivery  service  at  the 
disposal  of  the  lecturers  in  conveying  the  exhibits  from 
school  to  school. 


CHILDREN'S  SAFETV  CRUSADE 

I  AMERICAN    MUSEUM  OF  SAFETY 
MW  39  IS  STREET.  NY    CITY 


A  "SAFETY"  WAGON  THAT  HAS  BECOME  A  FAMILIAR  SIGHT  TO 
THE  SCHOOL  CHILDREN  OF  BROOKLYN 

Posters  describing  this  safety  work  are  conspicuously 
displayed  in  the  cars  on  all  the  surface-lines  operated  by 
the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company. 

In  its  editorial  columns  the  Philadelphia  Inquirer  re- 
cently commented  on  this  safety  campaign  as  follows: 

This  plan  must  appeal  to  one  as  a  scientific  method  of  dealing  with 
the  subject  of  avoidable  accidents.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  will 
make  a  lasting  impression  on  the  young,  which  will  be  of  vast  benefit 
in  a  precautionary  way,  and  the  beauty  of  it  is  that  it  is  calculated 
to  prove  not  only  temporary  or  limited  to  the  young.  For,  after  all, 
persons  of  maturer  age  than  school-children  seem  also  in  need  of  such 
instruction,  and  these  may  get  it  from  their  little  ones,  if  the  idea  of 
home  discussions  is  carried  out. 

The  educational  plan  of  this  children's  safety  crusade 
includes  the  placing  of  loan  collections  of  exhibits  in  the 
schools,  to  remain  in  each  school  one  or  two  weeks,  thus 
affording  every  child  in  that  school  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  object-lessons  and  become  familiar  with  them; 


TRAINING    FUTURE    WORKERS       361 

also,  class  visits  of  school-children  accompanied  by  their 
teachers  to  the  museum  itself. 

In  co-operation  with  the  school  authorities  the  museum 
expects  to  extend  this  instruction,  by  means  of  evening 
courses  in  safety  and  sanitation,  to  the  forty  thousand 
pupils  who  annually  leave  the  public  schools  of  New  York 
City  to  go  to  work,  thus  preparing  them  to  meet  the  new 
industrial  conditions.  Every  young  worker  will  be  given 
a  certificate  based  on  examination.  This  certificate  will 
be  helpful  in  securing  the  first  position,  as  the  employer 
will  realize  that  he  will  have  a  worker  trained  in  cau- 
tion and  self-control.  In  this  way  it  is  hoped  to  refute 
the  contention  of  so  many  employers  that  workmen  will 
not  make  use  of  the  safeguards  furnished  them.  An  em- 
ployment bureau  may  be  a  future  feature  of  this  branch 
of  the  educational  work. 


XXII 

SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES 

WHILE  the  humanitarian  side  of  a  provision  for 
safety  is  obvious  there  is  also  much  to  be  said 
for  the   social  and    economic  safety  which    some    em- 
ployers aim  to  provide. 

This  is  illustrated  in  the  welfare  work  of  three  great 
industrialists  of  the  Old  World  who  have  brought  their 
undertakings  to  successful  issues.  Each  one  felt  that  he 
owed  labor  something  more  than  wages ;  each  was  governed 
by  high  ideals;  each  worked  out  his  philosophy  in  his 
individual  way,  based  on  his  own  attitude  and  personality; 
but  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  their  success 
meant  years  of  perseverance,  of  unselfish  devotion,  and 
labor. 

These  facts  are  instanced  in  refutation  of  the  arguments 
of  those  who  claim  that  such  undertakings  can  only  be 
perfected  by  the  few,  and  that  it  is  more  of  a  discourage- 
ment than  an  inspiration  to  the  many,  especially  those 
of  small  business  undertakings,  who  are  hard  pressed  by 
keen  competition  in  our  country.  While  this  is  true, 
Lever  and  Cadbury,  of  England,  and  Krupp,  of  Germany, 
made  their  start  under  very  similar  conditions  and  in  a 
very  small  way.  A  man's  sincerity  and  his  stability  of 
purpose  will  determine  the  degree  of  success  attending 
his  endeavor  to  promote  mutuality.  With  this  guiding  ^ 
principle  there  is  no  reason  for  discouragement  on  the 


SOMETHING 'MORE    THAN    WAGES   363 

part  of  any  one  desirous  of  doing  his  share  in  bringing 
about  industrial  peace. 

.Early  in  1909  Sir  William  H.  Lever,  one  of  the  best 
known  of  English  industrialists,  laid  before  a  meeting 
of  some  twelve  hundred  of  his  employees  what  he  called 
his  partnership  scheme,  whereby  he  intended  to  take  into 
partnership  eleven  hundred  and  thirty  members  of  his 
staff,  from  directors  down.  In  his  opening  speech  he 
commented  on  the  fact  that  it  was  just  twenty-one 
years  before  that  the  first  sod  was  cut  at  the  industrial 
community  of  Port  Sunlight.  He  also  stated  that  it 
had  taken  an  equal  length  of  time  for  him  to  perfect  the 
scheme  which  he  was  about  to  unfold,  although  it  had 
been  his  aim  and  desire  from  the  very  first. 

At  the  outset  of  his  career  as  a  manufacturer,  in  1886, 
he  had  made  a  study  of  various  profit-sharing  plans, 
with  a  view  to  arriving  at  closer  relations  with  his  work- 
ing family  than  those  ordinarily  existing  between  em- 
ployer and  employee.  He  was  not  in  sympathy  with 
profit  -  sharing,  so  called,  believing  firmly  that  profit 
without  loss  sharing  was  unsound  in  business  relation- 
ships. *He  did  believe,  however,  that  whatever  pro- 
duces a  more  kindly  and  friendly  bond  between  em- 
ployer and  employee  cannot  fail  to  be  beneficial.  His 
first  effort,  accordingly,  was  the  building  of  the  village 
of  Port  Sunlight,  where  his  factory  was  located,  in 
Cheshire. 

Port  Sunlight  is  an  idyl,  created  through  the  largeness 
of  a  great  man's  mind,  one  who  has  conscientiously  en- 
deavored to  meet  every  contingency  as  far  as  is  humanly 
possible. 

The  undertaking  was  the  result  of  a  well-matured, 
scientific  plan  for  city -building.  Necessarily,  the  problem 


364  SAFETY' 

was  difficult,  inasmuch  as  homes  had  to  be  provided  for 
people  of  moderate  means. 

The  total  acreage  of  the  works  and  the  village  is  two 
hundred  and  thirty  acres,  representing  an  expenditure  of 
upward  of  two  and  a  half  million  dollars,  exclusive  of  the 
business.  From  the  very  first  the  management  of  the 
village  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  citizens,  who  control 
its  affairs  through  a  village  council,  elected  by  the  house- 
holders' association. 

Not  only  is  Port  Sunlight  a  most  beautiful  city  of 
homes,  with  comfortable  firesides  and  delightful  sur- 
roundings, but  its  completeness  in  every  detail  has  made 
it  possible  for  the  dweller  to  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
free  citizenship,  the  joys  of  culture,  music,  recreation, 
and  healthfulness  in  a  greater  degree  than  would  be 
possible  in  many  larger  centers. 

A  workman's  cottage,  containing  parlor,  kitchen, 
scullery,  pantry,  four  bedrooms  and  a  bath,  rents  for 
$1.25  a  week.  Each  house  is  beautified  by  a  garden  in 
the  foreground,  serving  also  as  a  screen  from  the  road. 
Every  year  a  certain  amount  has  been  set  aside  from  the 
profits  of  the  business  for  the  building  of  more  cottages 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  village.  The  houses  are  let 
to  the  workers  without  any  regard  to  the  return  on  the 
capital  invested,  with  rentals  so  arranged  as  to  cover 
taxes,  repairs,  and  maintenance.  No  one  on  the  staff 
is  compelled,  however,  to  dwell  in  the  village. 

Everywhere  in  Port  Sunlight  there  is  diversity  of  archi- 
tecture, winding  roadways,  adornment  of  yards  with 
flowers  and  lines  of  trees;  in  fact,  all  the  externals  have 
been  planned  with  an  eye  to  beauty.  The  general  width  of 
the  roadways  has  been  fixed  at  forty  feet,  allowing  eight 
feet  for  sidewalks.  A  considerable  part  of  the  tract  is 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   365 

indented  with  ravines;  wherever  possible  the  ravines  have 
been  filled  in  and  graded,  affording  pleasing  sweeps  and 
curves  to  the  roadways  which,  in  general,  have  been  planned 
to  afford  the  most  direct  routes  to  important  points,  such% 
as  the  factory,  ferry,  railroad  station,  and  tram  terminus. 

Sir  William  found  it  imperative  to  keep  the  gardens 
in  order,  so  that  the  obtrusion  of  neglected  or  ill-kept 
plots  might  not  mar  the  symmetry  of  the  ensemble. 
The  extra  cost  amounts  to  about  six  cents  a  week  for 
each  yard,  which  is  added  to  the  tenant's  rent.  Other 
houses,  larger  and  more  elaborate,  have  been  built  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  chemists,  mechanical  engineers, 
architects,  superintendents  and  the  resident  pastor;  their 
dwellings  are  more  expensive.  Architects  come  to  Port 
Sunlight  from  all  over  the  United  Kingdom  to  study  the 
treatment  of  house  and  land,  and  the  relation  of  both  to 
the  block  on  which  they  are  located. 

A  bit  of  slum  property,  bought  in  1900,  by  an  irony  of 
fate  bore  the  name  of  Primrose  Hill.  It  was  pathetic 
that  property  containing  such  ramshackle  dwellings 
should  be  associated  with  suggestions  of  flowers  and 
fields;  under  such  conditions  of  life  it  was  no  wonder  that 
all  sorts  of  industrial  complications  existed.  Certainly 
only  a  poor  specimen  of  mankind  could  have  been  content 
to  live  in  such  rookeries.  To-day,  those  hovels  have  been 
torn  down  and  replaced  by  true  homes,  now  justifying 
Primrose  Hill  and  re-establishing  the  old  traditions  and 
memories  of  a  happy  outdoor  life. 

A  decorative  feature  of  Port  Sunlight  is  the  graceful 
bridge  spanning  the  park  and  ravine  near  the  schools, 
which  were  built  on  the  most  scientific  principle,  as  it 
is  here  believed  that  nothing  is  too  good  for  the  chil- 
dren, who  start  in  the  kindergarten  and  pass  through  the 


366  SAFETY 

various  grades  of  elementary  schooling.  The  scholars 
are  offered  supplementary  work  in  science,  languages, 
shorthand,  wood-carving,  designing,  and  other  technical 
Branches.  A  system  of  scholarships  makes  a  college 
course  possible  anywhere  in  Great  Britain  for  those 
winning  them.  This  opportunity  for  a  scholarship  gives 
a  young  man  or  woman  a  chance  to  see  the  world,  which 
might  never  have  been  possible  if  their  lot  had  been  cast 
in  a  less  favored  community.  No  partiality  is  shown; 
all  have  an  equal  chance. 

Fresh  air,  clean  houses,  good  food,  moral  surroundings, 
and  wholesome  recreation  are  equipping  the  Port  Sun- 
light children  for  any  struggle  in  life.  The  birth-rate  is 
much  higher  than  elsewhere  in  the  Kingdom;  the  death- 
rate  between  eight  and  nine  in  one  thousand,  as  opposed 
to  thirty-five  in  the  congested  slum  districts. 

The  church  built  to  meet  the  religious  sentiment  of  the 
community  is  a  simple  but  dignified  piece  of  architecture 
worthy  of  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  with  every 
detail  speaking  of  thoroughness  and  truth,  and  only  such 
ornament  as  adds  dignity  to  the  building. 

The  young  women  have  a  social  center  for  entertain- 
ments as  well  as  useful  pursuits;  not  only  do  they  meet 
for  good  times,  for  dancing,  singing,  lectures,  discussions, 
and  other  forms  of  self -culture,  but  they  receive  lessons 
in  various  trades  and  domestic  science. 

For  a  nominal  rental  of  $1.25  a  year,  gardens  are  allotted 
to  each  family,  whose  members  are  stimulated  by  this  out- 
door education  and  encouraged  by  a  series  of  prizes  at 
the  annual  flower  and  vegetable  shows.  Incidentally, 
these  little  garden-plots  are  a  commendable  saloon  sub- 
stitute, creating  an  interest  outside  of  working-hours. 

The  inn,  with  its  two  great  wings  and  its  unconfined 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   367 

court  offering  a  fine  approach,  carries  one  back  to  olden 
days,  when  coaches  dashed  up  to  the  door  with  blowing 
of  horns  and  cracking  of  whips,  and  lends  a  charm  and 
picturesqueness  to  the  fancy.  Besides  the  small  dining- 
rooms  for  cozy  parties  there  are  larger  rooms  for  the 
social  reunions  of  the  clubs  and  organizations.  One 
floor  of  a  side  wing  was  built  for  dancing,  dramatics,  con- 
certs, and  other  forms  of  entertainment.  Billiard-tables 
have  also  been  installed,  so  that  all  the  citizens  may  share 
in  the  attractions  provided  by  the  inn.  For  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  men  athletic  headquarters  are  maintained  in 
another  part  of  the  village,  and,  near  by,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  bowling-greens  in  England. 

A  ravine  with  sloping  banks  offered  a  suggestion  for 
an  open-air  theater,  along  the  lines  of  those  in  classic 
Greece.  It  was  an  experiment,  but  has  met  with  a  fair 
degree  of  success.  The  village  also  boasts  of  a  swimming- 
pool  with  adjoining  shower-baths — a  pastime  greatly  ap- 
preciated by  Englishmen. 

In  every  European  community,  with  its  root.age  going 
back  many  centuries,  there  is  much  of  the  quaint  and 
curious ;  for  the  sake  of  conserving  interest  in  the  past  and 
stimulating  any  desire  to  delve  into  the  historic  and 
scientific,  a  free  library  and  museum  are  maintained  at 
Port  Sunlight. 

In  summarizing  the  effect  of  this  village  of  light  it  is 
not  exaggeration  to  say  that  it  is  a  convincing  object- 
lesson  of  the  principle  that  good  food,  healthy  occupation, 
pleasant  surroundings,  and  reasonable  recreation  are  better 
than  any  legislation  for  making  a  happy  and  prosperous 
community. 

After  the  successful  establishment  of  Port  Sunlight 
Sir  William  Lever  felt  that  its  benefits  did  not  include 


368  SAFETY 

his  staff  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  in  other 
countries.  To  remedy  this  he  organized  the  Employees' 
Benefit  Fund,  which  provided-old  age  annuities  of  eighteen 
pounds  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  a  year.  He 
considered  this  as  simple  justice  to  the  men  who  had  been 
devoting  their  best  years  to  his  business.  Then  came  the 
committee  system,  through  which  the  managers  and 
heads  of  departments  were  made  to  take  a  more  personal 
interest  in  the  business  and  the  men  in  their  immediate 
charge.  Finally,  it  was  proposed  to  the  council  —  the 
court  of  final  appeal,  composed  of  the  chairmen  of  each 
committee  —  that  they  seek  some  method  for  saving 
expenditure,  avoiding  waste,  and  promoting  efficiency, 
and  whereby  each  could  share  in  the  saving  effected. 
In  commenting  on  this  last  stage  of  his  work  Sir  William 
Lever  has  said : 

"I  finally  came  to  the  conclusion,  in  view  of  these 
repeated  attempts,  founded  on  a  basis  of  records  and 
impossible  statistics,  that  I  was  trying  to  solve  the  in- 
soluble; and,  as  I  did  not  agree  with  profit-sharing  with- 
out loss-sharing,  and  as  the  system  of  payments  by  results 
in  the  various  departments  of  our  particular  type  of 
manufacturing  business  was  impossible  of  realization,  I 
had  to  attempt  to  evolve  an  entirely  different  system." 

Again,  in  a  public  address,  he  remarked : 


In  business  there  is  no  room,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  there  should 
be  room,  for  benevolence,  but  a  partnership  founded  on  sound  lines 
seems  to  me  to  be  elevating,  encouraging,  and  stimulating;  if  we  could 
only  here,  in  Port  Sunlight,  solve  this  problem  so  that  every  employee, 
after  having  served  an  apprenticeship  to  the  business  and  after  having 
arrived  at  a  mature  age,  may  be  taken  into  partnership  in  this  business, 
and  may  share  equally  in  proportion  to  position  and  contributions 
to  the  success  of  the  business  with  myself  and  those  who  will  follow 
me,  then  do  I  feel  that  we  shall  have  established  our  more  perfect 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   369 

relationship  as  people  engaged  in  one  common  sense,  and  fighting  for 
a  common  interest. 

Believing  that  the  employer  should  "get  back  again, 
in  office,  factory,  and  work-shop,  to  that  close  family 
brotherhood  that  existed  in  the  good  old  days  of  hand 
labor,'*  Sir  William  laid  down  what  he  considers  as  ele- 
mental conditions  necessary  to  the  success  of  a  partner- 
ship plan : 

1.  It  must  not  degenerate  into  charity  or  philanthropy. 

2.  Its  object  must  be  the  increased  success  of  the  undertaking, 
with  increased  prosperity  for  all  connected  with  it. 

3.  It  must  not  place  management  in  the  position  of  servant  to 
labor  through  liability  to  criticism  and  censure. 

4.  It  must  insure  to  labor  freedom  from  control  of  management 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  benefits  derived  from  prosperity-sharing. 

5.  It  must  possess  greater  stability  than  a  mere  system  of  bonus 
checks  varying  in  amount  from  year  to  year  and  ceasing  altogether 
in  years  of  bad  trade. 

6.  Its  benefits  must  be  felt  by  wives  and  children. 

7.  It  must  have  a  distinctly  elevating  tendency  on  labor,  raising 
it  in  the  social  and  intellectual  scale,  and  increasing  its  power  for 
its  own  enjoyment  and  happiness,  as  well  as  its  power  of  usefulness. 

8.  The  benefit  must  be  reserved  to  employees  and  pensioners  at 
the  discretion  of  the  firm. 

In  discussing  his  plan  at  the  meeting,  in  1909,  he  stated 
that  its  corner-stone  would  be  confidence  in  those  qualified 
to  participate.  Paying  a  beautiful  tribute  to  those 
assembled,  he  said: 

I  have  never  found  my  confidence  misplaced  when  I  have  reposed  it 
in  you,  and  I  know  it  is  not  going  to  be  misplaced  this  time.  But 
apart  from  that  there  is  another  factor  that,  in  my  opinion,  enters 
into  business  relationships,  and  that  is  happiness.  I  have  a  great 
strain  of  veneration  for  that  which  has  gone  before,  and  whether  it  is 
in  architecture,  paintings,  or  old  furniture,  I  believe  firmly  that  which 
has  survived  the  test  of  time  is  the  best.  Now,  I  have  looked  for  my 
model  in  this  new  arrangement  to  the  oldest  working  arrangement 
that  has  ever  existed  in  business,  and  that  is  the  ordinary  partnership. 


370  SAFETY 

It  was  then  announced  that  he  proposed  to  create  five 
hundred  thousand  pounds,  par  value,  of  partnership 
certificates — for  allotment  among  those  eligible,  namely, 
all  employees  of  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  over  who 
had  been  with  the  firm  at  least  five  years.  Most  generous- 
ly he  dated  back  to  January  i,  1900,  the  first  allotments, 
under  this  ruling.  The  basis  of  the  annual  allotment  is 
about  ten  per  cent,  of  a  man's  salary.  It  was  impressed 
upon  the  men  that  there  would  be  no  liability  for  money, 
and  no  one  would  be  called  upon  to  pay  a  single  penny. 
The  holders  of  the  partnership  certificates  are  on  the 
same  basis  as  the  ordinary  share-holders,  and  receive 
dividends  after  the  share-holders  have  received  theirs. 
If  any  holder  of  the  partnership  certificates  wishes  to 
acquire  preference  shares,  he  is  at  perfect  liberty  to  do 
so,  but  he  must  buy  them  in  the  open  market;  however, 
he  can  never  buy  more  than  an  amount  equal  to  his 
partnership  certificates. 

Each  employee  who  is  eligible  requests,  in  writing,  from 
the  trustees  of  the  partnership  scheme  a  certificate;  in 
return  for  this  he  agrees  that  "I  will  not  waste  time, 
labor,  materials,  or  money  in  the  discharge  of  my  duties, 
but  will  loyally  and  faithfully  further  the  interests  of 
Lever  Brothers,  Limited,  its  associated  companies  and  my 
co-partners,  to  the  best  of  my  skill  and  ability,  and  I  hand 
you  herewith  a  statement  in  writing  of  the  ground  upon 
which  I  base  this  application." 

There  are  two  conditions  upon  which  the  partnership 
certificate  may  be  canceled:  flagrant  misconduct  and 
leaving  the  firm's  employ.  The  amount  of  partnership 
certificates  that  any  one  man  may  hold  is  based  on  the 
following  scale: 


A   VIEW   IN   PORT   SUNLIGHT,    CHESHIRE,    AN   INDUSTRIAL   COMMONWEALTH 


PLAYGROUNDS    FOR    THE    NEXT    GENERATION    OF    WORKERS    AT    KRUPP's,    ESSEN 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   371 

Annual  salary  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty 

pounds  and  upward 3,ooo  of  certificates 

Between  750  and  500  pounds 2,000  "          " 

"    500  "  300   "   1,200  " 

"     300   "   200     "    800  " 

200   "   100          400  " 

Less  than  100       "       400  " 

If  a  man's  health  breaks  down,  or  he  reaches  the  age  of 
sixty-five  and  wishes  to  retire,  or  the  firm  wish  him  to 
retire,  then  his  partnership  certificates  are  exchanged  for 
preference  certificates,  on  the  basis  of  ten  years'  purchase 
on  average  dividends.  These  preferential  certificates 
will  be  continued  in  favor  of  a  man's  widow  as  long  as 
she  remains  unmarried.  This  generous  pension  for  the 
widow  recognizes  the  help  which  a  wife  who  is  interested 
heart  and  soul  in  her  husband's  success  can  render — 
a  further  extension  of  the  partnership  idea.  The  plan 
includes  only  the  man  himself,  or  his  widow,  and  not 
his  mother,  sisters,  or  any  other  relatives  dependent  upon 
him. 

"Waste  not,  want  not"  is  the  motto  of  the  deed  of 
trust  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  partnership 
scheme,  which  covers  four  classes — management,  sales- 
men, employees,  and  preference-certificate  holders;  each 
class  chooses  three  members  to  constitute  a  commit- 
tee working  under  the  trustees,  who  are  the  directors  of 
Lever  Brothers.  Out  of  the  total  five  hundred  thousand 
pounds  not  more  than  one-fourth  can  be  distributed  among 
the  directors,  management,  salesmen,  and^  employees; 
the  certificates  being  issued  in  unit  values  of  sovereigns. 

Finally,  preference  certificates  can  be  granted  to  the 
social  institutions  of  Port  Sunlight  —  the  churches, 
schools,  scholarships,  and  recreation  gymnasium — so 
that  they  may  be  put  on  an  independent  foundation. 

25 


372  SAFETY 

Sir  William  Lever  is  a  hard-headed  business  man, 
with  a  preponderating  sense  of  justice  to  all  his  workers. 
He  considers  philanthropy  in  business  a  misconception 
of  business  relationships,  and  will  have  none  of  it. 

He  has  worked  his  way  up  from  the  ranks  and  has 
acquired  his  education  in  the  hard  school  of  practical 
experience.  This  development  has  given  him  a  keen 
grasp  on  all  business  problems.  Only  a  man  of  the  keen- 
est intellect,  swayed  by  a  great  sense  of  justice  and  a 
desire  to  overcome  difficulties  which  would  have  dis- 
couraged an  ordinary  man,  could  have  struck  out  so 
boldly,  neither  fearing  nor  caring  for  criticism  from  the 
whole  world  of  commerce  and  business  and  holding  him- 
self true  to  the  course  he  feels  is  right. 

When  Mr.  Edward  Cadbury  was  recently  asked  what 
influence  had  determined  him  to  introduce  a  new  social 
order  in  the  conduct  of  his  business,  he  made  answer: 
"I  am  firmly  convinced  that  the  principle  of  brotherhood 
should  be  applied  in  the  daily  conduct  and  routine  of  a 
business.  This  principle  has  led  me  to  the  provision  of 
perfect  sanitation  in  my  factory,  good  air,  cleanliness,  and 
wholesome  food-stuffs;  furthermore,  for  the  contentment 
and  happiness  of  my  employees  these  clubhouses,  athletic 
centers,  swimming-pools,  recreation  fields  for  cricket, 
tennis,  and  football ;  and  a  communal  boarding-house  for 
my  girls  who  come  from  a  distance,  under  the  care  and 
supervision  of  a  matron,  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after 
their  comfort  and  pleasure.  I  can  assure  you  that  this 
house  is  not  only  a  haven  of  rest  but  a  true  home,  where 
one  sees  only  bright  and  cheerful  faces.  Gradually,  as 
my  business  increased,  I  took  up  the  question  of  better 
housing  and  surroundings  for  my  people;  later,  extend- 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   373 

ing  our  sphere  of  influence  by  including  those  living  in 
the  slums  of  Birmingham  and  by  making  the  rents  so 
low  that  the  occupancy  of  a  model  home  would  not  be 
prohibitive." 

When  Mr.  Cadbury  began  business  his  staff  consisted  of 
twelve ;  now  his  employees  number  nearly  four  thousand. 
The  social  side  of  the  work  kept  pace  with  the  business. 
Having  acquired  a  large  tract  of  land  in  Bournville, 
some  five  miles  from  Birmingham,  one  of  Mr.  Cadbury's 
first  achievements  in  1879  was  the  building  of  cot- 
tages for  his  employees.  Some  two  hundred  houses 
were  built  in  1895,  the  lowest  rental  being  $1.25  a 
week. 

Having  demonstrated  that  the  village  community  of 
Bournville  was  financially  practicable,  that  there  was  a 
demand  for  houses  with  gardens  and  rural  surroundings, 
that  the  health  of  the  community  was  greatly  above  the 
average,  and  that  the  population  would  develop  communal 
interests  and  corporate  action,  Mr.  Cadbury  decided  to 
make  a  gift  to  the  nation  of  the  village  and  the  estate 
consisting  of  five  hundred  and  two  acres,  six  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  houses,  with  a  population  of  3,170.  This  was 
done  by  means  of  a  trust,  to  administer  the  property  of 
the  estate  according  to  the  conditions  in  the  deed  of 
foundation.  The  revenue  in  1906  was  approximately 
$28,000  and  the  total  value  of  this  gift  to  the  nation 
$1,125,000.  It  is  an  absolute  gift,  no  part  of  the  capital 
or  the  revenue  returning  to  Mr.  Cadbury,  but  all  the  in- 
come to  be  used  for  continual  expansion  and  extension 
of  the  idea. 

December  14,  1900,  the  trust  was  transferred  to  the 
trustees,  who  were  apprised  of  its  object  in  the  opening 
sentences : 


374  SAFETY 

The  founder  is  desirous  of  alleviating  the  evils  which  arise  from 
the  insanitary  and  insufficient  accommodation  supplied  to  large  num- 
bers of  the  working  classes,  and  of  securing  to  workers  in  factories 
some  of  the  advantages  of  outdoor  village  life,  with  opportunities 
for  the  natural  and  healthful  occupation  of  cultivating  the  soil. 

The  object  is  declared  to  be  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of 
the  working  class  and  laboring  population  in  and  around  Birmingham, 
and  elsewhere  in  Great  Britain,  by  the  provision  of  improved  dwellings, 
with  gardens  and  open  spaces  to  be  enjoyed  therewith. 

It  is  suggested  in  the  deed  of  trust  that  no  factories 
shall  occupy  more  than  one-fifteenth  of  the  total  area 
of  the  estate. 

Provision  was  made  that  the  dwellings  should  occupy 
only  one-fourth  of  the  site,  the  remainder  of  the  lot  to  be 
used  for  gardens  or  open  spaces.  It  was  furthermore 
Mr.  Cadbury's  strong  desire  that  the  rents  should,  if 
practicable,  be  fixed  on  such  a  basis  as  to  put  them  within 
the  reach  of  the  working  classes  whom  he  wished  to 
attract  from  crowded  and  unsanitary  tenements,  without, 
however,  placing  them  in  the  position  of  being  recipients 
of  charity. 

The  average  garden  space  for  each  house  is  six  hundred 
square  yards,  and  is  laid  out  by  the  estate  gardeners  as  soon 
as  the  house  is  commenced.  Pear,  apple,  and  plum  trees 
are  planted  at  the  lower  end  of  each  plot,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  pleasant  screen  between  adjoining  premises 
as  well  as  for  the  fruit.  The  estate  maintains  two  profes- 
sional gardeners,  with  assistants,  who  are  ever  ready  to 
aid  the  tenant  with  information  and  advice,  but  he  is 
responsible  for  the  cultivation  of  his  own  garden.  Further 
interest  in  gardening  is  stimulated  by  two  classes  for 
boys  and  young  men. 

The  catholicity  of  the  trust  is  evidenced  in  this : 

The  administration  of  the  trust  shall  be  wholly  unsectarian  and 
non-political,  and  there  shall  always  be  a  rigid  exclusion  of  all  in- 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES    375 

fluences  calculated  or  tending  to  impart  to  it  a  character  sectarian  as 
regards  religion  or  belief,  or  exclusive  as  regards  politics,  and  it  will 
be  a  violation  of  the  intention  of  the  founder  if  participation  in  its 
benefits  should  be  excluded  on  the  ground  of  religious  belief  or  political 
bias. 

The  democracy  of  Bournville  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
only  forty-one  and  two-tenths  per  cent,  of  the  villagers 
work  for  Mr.  Cadbury,  while  forty  and  two -tenths 
per  cent,  come  from  Birmingham,  a  distance  of  five 
miles. 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  founder  that  the  sale,  dis- 
tribution, and  consumption  of  intoxicating  liquors  should 
be  entirely  suppressed,  unless  such  suppression,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  trustees,  should  lead  to  greater  evils.  The 
unanimous  consent  of  the  trustees,  in  writing,  is  a  pre- 
requisite for  the  use  of  any  house  where  liquor  may  be 
sold;  the  trustees  also  may  rigidly  prescribe  all  the  con- 
ditions under  which  a  license  is  granted.  All  net  profits 
shall  also  be  used  for  further  recreations  in  the  village  and 
counter-attractions  to  the  liquor  traffic  as  ordinarily 
conducted. 

A  recent  census  showed  that  fifty  and  seven-tenths  per 
cent,  of  the  villagers  were  employed  in  indoor  factory 
work;  thirteen  and  three-tenths  per  cent,  were  clerks 
and  travelers;  thirty-six  per  cent.,  mechanics,  carpenters^ 
bricklayers,  and  other  trades  not  capable  of  exact  classi- 
fication. The  affairs  of  Bournville  are  administered  by  a 
village  council,  elected  by  the  ballots  of  the  house- 
holders and  serving  voluntarily  for  one  year.  Two  of 
the  council  serve  on  the  school  committee ;  they  manage 
the  flower  shows  and  village  f£tes,  bath-house,  play- 
grounds, and  parks. 

For  the  six  years  ending  1906  the  death -rate  in  the 
village  was  7.4  in  1,000,  as  opposed  to  10.7  for  the  city 


376  SAFETY 

district  and  15.9  for  England  and  Wales.  The  infant 
mortality  per  thousand  live  births  for  the  five  years 
ending  1906  was:  Bourn ville,  78.8;  the  city  district,  104; 
England  and  Wales,  134.4. 

Mr.  Cadbury  has  built  better  than  he  knew;  his  social 
trust  is  continuing  its  success  and  widening  its  sphere 
of  influence,  inasmuch  as  it  has  served  as  a  model  for  the 
Garden  City  Association  of  England,  which  is  developing 
a  tract  of  thirty-eight  hundred  acres  within  an  hour's 
ride  of  London  with  the  direct  object  of  lessening  the  city 
congestion  and  becoming  a  self-contained  community, 
combining  the  social  attractions  of  the  city  with  the 
healthfulness  of  the  country. 

Both  Mr.  Cadbury  and  Mr.  Lever  are  generous  con- 
tributors to  this  association  and  are  members  of  its 
board  of  trustees. 

Last,  but  not  least,  in  this  trilogy  enters  the  work  and 
influence  of  a  personality  who,  more  than  the  others,  went 
through  the  depths.  Notwithstanding  all  the  hardships, 
trials,  and  discouragements,  this  man  became  the  founder 
of  a  work,  colossal  in  importance,  known  all  over  the 
world,  and  which  must  ever  serve  as  a  lesson  to  indus- 
trialists and  men  of  affairs.  Three  generations  of  Krupps 
have  passed  away,  but  the  work  handed  down  to  posterity 
has  become  a  memorial,  outlasting  tablets  of  brass  and 
monuments  of  stone. 

The  establishing  of  a  great  business  means  the  develop- 
ment of  industry  and  commerce  and  the  building  up  of 
the  community.  Nowhere  can  we  find  this  illustrated 
more  forcefully  than  in  our  own  country.  For  two  hun- 
dred years  Schenectady  was  a  conservative,  self-con- 
tained, old  Dutch  town,  but  with  the  advent  of  the 
General  Electric  Works  a  new  force  showed  itself  and 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   377 

has  become  irresistible.  The  growth  of  the  works  and 
the  progress  of  the  city  have  kept  pace. 

If  now  you  have  a  man  of  unselfish  purpose,  democratic 
sentiments,  and  real  love  for  his  fellows,  sincere  in  his 
wish  to  express  the  idea  of  mutuality  by  sharing  the  pros- 
perity which  has  come  to  him  with  the  co-workers  who 
have  made  it  possible  through  their  toil,  such  a  man 
leaves  an  indelible  imprint  on  the  community  in  which 
he  lives.  The  success  of  the  one  means  the  success  of 
the  other.  Even  so  Essen  is  famous  for  the  efforts  of  one 
little  man  who  in  1810  founded  his  works  there.  The 
first  year  there  were  four  on  the  pay-roll ;  to-day,  nearly 
seventy  thousand. 

In  looking  at  the  completed  picture  of  this  enterprise 
one  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  early  struggles  and 
efforts,  nor  of  the  humble  origin  of  this  mighty  business. 
Living  in  a  city  of  considerable  extent,  Krupp's  first 
efforts  were  to  bring  the  people  near  the  factory  for  the 
sake  of  saving  time  and  money  in  going  to  and  from  their 
work.  Westend,  the  first  colony,  was  founded  in  1863; 
then  came  Nordhof,  1871;  Baumhof,  1872;  Schederhof, 
1873;  Croneberg,  1874;  Alfredshof,  1894;  Friedrichshof, 
the  latest  colony,  was  built  in  1906,  and  accommodates  over 
five  hundred  families.  This  last  is  also  the  best ;  and  the 
stranger,  passing  through  the  streets  of  Friedrichshof,  is 
impressed  by  the  magnificence  of  the  location,  the  diver- 
sity— yet  simplicity — of  the  architecture,  the  entrances 
and  archways,  resembling  the  portals  of  palaces  and  his- 
toric buildings,  the  loggias  and  balconies,  the  small  parks, 
and  trees  and  flowers  everywhere.  Each  family  has  the 
use  of  a  grass-plot  in  front  of  its  dwelling  for  bleaching 
or  drying  clothes,  these  open  spaces  being  designed  for 
useful  as  well  as  ornamental  purposes. 


378  SAFETY 

Everywhere  one  meets  happy  and  contented  faces  of  the 
children  who  play  in  the  courts,  or  little  parks.  They 
seem  anything  but  the  type  of  children  one  finds  in  the 
ordinary  factory  neighborhood.  Krupp  showed  his  usual 
foresight  in  the  provision  of  adequate  playgrounds  for 
the  children,  well  knowing  that  they  would  be  candidates 
for  future  positions  in  his  works.  It  was  not  a  matter  of 
experiment;  he  knew  that  he  could  depend  on  workmen 
of  sterling  worth  and  character,  for  they  had  grown  up 
under  the  wholesome  conditions  of  the  colony  life. 

In  Friedrichshof  an  apartment  of  three  rooms  rents  for 
from  $41.25  to  $55  a  year;  of  four  rooms,  $51.25  to  $65; 
five  rooms,  $63.75  to  $68.75,  according  to  location.  The 
rooms  are  of  good  size,  every  one  communicating  with  the 
outer  air. 

Krupp's  works  are  not  confined  to  Essen.  His  ship- 
yards, collieries,  mines  for  iron  ore,  rolling-mills,  and  blast- 
furnaces are  located  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 
Likewise,  his  altruism  is  not  confined  to  Essen,  as  is  in- 
stanced by  the  conditions  surrounding  his  coal -miners 
near  Bochum. 

There  are  one  hundred  and  three  supply  stores  for  the 
sale  of  meat,  bread,  manufactured  goods,  shoes,  haber- 
dashery, hardware,  clothing,  and  everything  needed  in  the 
home.  Twenty-five  shops  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
sale  of  coal,  potatoes,  and  straw.  Krupp,  solicitous  for 
everything  which  concerned  his  workmen  and  their 
families,  examined  closely  into  the  question  of  food  and 
household  supplies.  Ascertaining  that  his  people  were 
not  receiving  pure  food-stuffs,  just  weights  or  measures,  he 
opened  supply  stores  to  meet  these  requirements,  but  not 
to  undersell  the  local  dealers  in  Essen.  To  encourage 
patronage  of  these  stores  there  is  a  system  of  profit  dis- 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   379 

tribution,  each  householder  receiving  8  per  cent,  on  all 
the  purchases  made  by  her  during  the  year.  Over  a 
thousand  people  are  required  to  run  these  stores. 

A  flour-mill  and  two  bakeries  supply  the  colonies  with 
bread-stuffs.  A  recent  monthly  record  showed  a  daily 
product  of  twelve  thousand  loaves  of  bread  and  forty- 
seven  thousand  small  pieces.  The  mill  is  equipped  with 
the  most  scientific  methods  of  refining  and  producing  the 
best  food-stuffs.  It  is  one  of  the  model  mills  in  Germany. 
Two  slaughter-houses,  a  factory  for  brushes  and  bags,  and 
a  coffee-roasting  mill  complete  the  store  system.  The 
supply  stores  furnish  the  Krupp  public-houses,  nine  in 
number,  with  the  provisions  for  warm  and  cold  food,  beer, 
wine,  and  coffee.  In  three  of  these  the  large  hall  is  at  the 
service  of  the  men  for  their  festivities  and  entertainments. 
At  the  coffee-houses  a  bowl  of  coffee  is  served  for  half  a 
cent,  with  sugar  at  the  rate  of  three  pieces  for  one-fourth 
of  a  cent,  and  a  pint  of  milk  for  one  and  a  fourth  cents. 
There  is  a  complete  system  of  restaurants ;  the  one  at  the 
entrance  to  the  works  accommodates  five  hundred  men 
at  a  sitting,  and  the  largest  three  thousand  men,  who  pay 
seven  and  a  half  ct,.^  >r  the  noon  meal  of  soup  and  a 
good  portion  of  meat;  for  five  cents  a  supper  is  served, 
with  a  choice  of  meat  or  fish. 

In  a  home-keeping  school  the  daughters  of  the  workmen 
qualify  themselves  for  the  management  of  future  homes. 
They  are  first  taught  the  simple  principles  of  marketing, 
and  then  the  preparation  of  the  food  purchased.  Economy 
is  the  watchword,  and  the  amount  of  food  is  carefully 
calculated  for  each  person.  If  any  food  remains  after 
the  meal  it  is  saved  and  tastefully  prepared  for  dishes  on 
the  morrow.  The  whole  course  of  four  months  is  on  a 
scientific  basis.  Not  only  are  the  girls  taught  the  prepara- 


38o  SAFETY 

tion  of  a  wholesome  meal,  but  each  has  a  little  garden  for 
raising  the  vegetables  used  in  the  kitchen.  They  are 
also  taught  how  to  preserve  vegetables  and  fruits  for 
winter  use.  To  make  the  study  practical  a  midday  meal 
is  prepared  and  served  by  the  young  cooks  to  the  work- 
men whose  wives  happen  to  be  sick,  to  those  who  have  no 
homes  of  their  own,  and  to  invalids.  The  price  of  the 
meal  is  about  nine  cents. 

For  a  warm  bath  the  men  pay  six  cents,  the  women  two 
and  a  half  cents,  and  the  children  one  and  a  fourth  cents; 
soap  and  towels  are  furnished  free. 

An  average  of  forty-five  thousand  people  a  year  use 
the  bathing  facilities  that  are  furnished  at  Friedrichshof . 
The  public-bath  building  also  contains  the  free  library 
and  reading-room.  Another  house  is  devoted  to  medi- 
cated baths  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  massage.  In  all  of  the 
new  factory  buildings  baths  for  the  men  are  installed  as 
a  matter  of  course,  while  in  the  washrooms  each  man  has 
his  own  locker  of  perforated  metal 

In  1890  a  social  center,  known  as  the  Officials'  Casino, 
was  opened,  where  Krupp  could  meet  his  staff  and  freely 
discuss  the  affairs  of  the  business.  Connected  with  the 
casino  are  a  restaurant  and  garden,  clubrooms,  bowling- 
alleys,  a  gymnasium,  fencing-school,  baths,  and  a  library. 
The  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  thrown  into 
one  on  special  occasions.  In  addition  to  this  recreational 
center  a  few  years  later  a  boathouse  was  built  on  the 
Ruhr,  a  lovely  stream  flowing  through  the  city  and 
admirably  adapted  for  water  sports  and  contests  of  all 
kinds.  In  cold  weather  this  spot  is  a  rendezvous  for 
winter  sports.  The  bicycle  clubs  also  make  use  of  the 
building.  Under  the  auspices  of  a  mutual  improvement 
society  of  three  thousand  members,  organized  for  self- 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES   381 

culture  and  civic  betterment,  dramatics,  concerts,  lec- 
tures, and  various  entertainments  are  given  free  or  at  a 
nominal  cost. 

Krupp's  crowning  effort  in  all  this  wonderful  work  was 
his  provision  for  the  old  and  those  incapacitated  in  his 
service.  It  was  his  wish  that  these  veterans  should  live 
their  declining  years  in  comfort  and  free  from  care.  The 
colony  at  Altenhof,  built  for  this  purpose,  contains  two 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  houses  where  aged  employees 
may  live,  rent  free,  during  the  remainder  of  their  lives. 

Each  little  home  is  a  bower  of  beauty,  treated  archi- 
tecturally different,  so  as  to  free  it  from  any  institutional 
taint.  To  each  Krupp  attached  a  small  garden,  well 
knowing  the  joy  and  diversion  which  occupation  in  the 
open  air  would  give  the  veterans,  keeping  them  in  good 
health  and  spirits. 

The  whole  layout  of  the  colony  of  Altenhof  would  well 
serve  as  a  model  village;  winding  streets,  shaded  by 
beautiful  trees,  ever  avoiding  stiff,  straight  lines,  give  a 
most  restful  and  pleasing  effect.  Krupp  had  due  regard 
for  open  spaces,  the  grass  of  which  is  neatly  kept  by 
the  old  people,  who  take  a  communal  pride  in  the 
village. 

In  the  event  of  the  death  of  one  of  an  aged  couple  the 
survivor  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  old  home  for  a  period 
of  six  months;  after  which  he  or  she  is  transferred  to  the 
widowers'  or  widows'  home.  In  the  widowers'  home  each 
inmate  has  a  room  to  himself,  so  that  he  can  be  perfectly 
independent  if  he  desires.  The  meals  for  the  men  are 
sent  in  from  the  convalescents'  home,  just  opposite,  at  a 
cost  of  twelve  cents  a  day.  The  dining-room  is  used  in 
common,  and  is  a  social  center.  Here,  with  their  warm 
carpet  slippers,  their  long  pipes,  and  their  caps,  the  old 


382  SAFETY 

men  look  the  picture  of  solid  comfort,  remote  from  the 
outside  world. 

The  widows  have  each  two  rooms,  a  main  room  and  a 
tiny  kitchen  where  they  prepare  their  own  meals.  The 
dining-room,  however,  is  used  in  common.  Everything  is 
scrupulously  clean  and  free  from  odors.  Connected  with 
these  two  retreats  is  a  large  kitchen. 

Two  churches,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  testify  to 
Krupp 's  liberality  in  furnishing  houses  of  worship  for 
each  creed.  Adjoining  the  Protestant  church,  a  simple 
shaft,  with  a  bronze  medallion  of  Krupp,  has  been  erected 
as  a  memorial  by  the  old  men  and  women  who  con- 
tributed their  pennies.  They  felt  that  they  had  lost 
their  best  friend  when  Krupp  passed  away. 

The  convalescents'  home  stands  on  a  terrace  over- 
looking a  deep  glen,  which  merges  into  a  wood  on  the 
opposite  hillside.  The  glen  and  surrounding  wood  form 
part  of  a  large  park,  which  is  for  the  enjoyment  of  all  the 
people.  This  home  is  so  successful  in  the  complete 
restoration  to  health  of  patients  sent  there  from  the 
hospital  that  Frau  Krupp  has  built  other  homes  for 
women  and  children  adjoining. 

In  1907  fifty-eight  hundred  people  were  treated  in  the 
hospital.  There  are  special  pavilions  for  diphtheria  and 
tuberculosis  and  for  medicated  baths,  while  in  the  suburbs 
two  barracks  are  always  available  in  case  of  an  epidemic. 
The  medical  service  is  directed  by  a  staff  of  five,  with 
twelve  trained  nurses  and  forty  attendants.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  hospital  naturally  suggests  mention  of  the 
funds  for  social  insurance — that  is,  insurance  for  sickness, 
invalidism,  accident,  death,  and  pensions.  In  addition 
to  the  obligatory  funds  prescribed  by  law  there  is  a  work- 
men's pension  fund  of  $4,312,500;  one  for  the  officials  of 


SOMETHING    MORE    THAN    WAGES    383 

$1,925,000  capital;  a  supplemental  workmen's  fund  of 
$1,425,000;  and  the  convalescents'  home  fund  of  $75,000. 
Including  the  revenue  from  these  funds,  the  firm  paid  in 
one  year  $767,000  for  sick  and  accident  insurance,  $358,000 
for  pensions,  and  $593,000  for  industrial  betterment;  a 
grand  total  of  $1,717,000  for  that  year. 

The  home  of  the  founder,  Krupp,  who  died  in  1826, 
still  stands  in  the  center  of  the  great  works.  His  son 
Alfred  wrote  in  1873  these  memorable  words: 

For  fifty  years  our  family  dwelt  in  this  workman's  house.  For 
years  a  cloud  of  uncertainty  hung  over  us  as  to  the  success  of  the 
undertaking.  During  this  time  we  passed  many  a  sleepless  night 
and  many  a  day  of  sorrow.  I  hope  that  no  workman  will  ever  pass 
through  a  like  experience,  and  it  is  my  wish  that  this  little  house  shall 
ever  be  kept  intact  as  a  memorial  to  the  humble  origin  of  our  great 
works.  May  it  ever  serve  as  a  source  of  encouragement  to  the  faint- 
hearted and  an  inspiration  to  the  small  beginner. 

Concluding,  he  used  the  life  motto  of  his  father: 

The  object  of  work  is  the  welfare  of  the  community;  then  is  work  a 
blessing  and  it  brings  a  benediction. 


XXIII 

AFTER   HOURS 

IN  recent  years  it  has  dawned  upon  the  minds  of  em- 
ployers that  the  human  machine  needs  attention,  rest, 
and  a  favorable  environment  for  achieving  the  best  re- 
sults in  production. 

Some  employers  have  improved  the  conditions  under 
which  their  operatives  work  because  they  feel  that  some- 
thing more  than  wages  is  due;  that  recognition  of  some 
kind  should  be  given  employees  for  having  performed  their 
share  in  the  work  of  production.  Others,  again,  have 
done  this  simply  because  it  paid  in  actual  dollars  and 
cents.  But  whatever  the  motive,  the  result — a  higher 
percentage  of  return — remains  the  same. 

Whatever  may  be  the  benefit  to  the  employer  in  im- 
proving the  conditions  of  life  and  labor  of  his  personnel, 
the  employee,  of  course,  has  also  been  the  gainer.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  employees  who  have  the  economic 
foresight  to  seize  opportunities  for  advancement  toward 
greater  commercial  worth  to  the  employer.  Increase  in 
wage  -  earning  capacity  is  invariably  recognized  by  pro- 
motion. 

Every  employer  wants  the  best  workmen  he  can  get. 
By  the  best  he  understands,  of  course,  those  who  fully 
earn  the  wages  he  pays,  and  so  improve  themselves  tjiat 
he  must  advance  them.  ''I  go  over  my  pay-roll  every 
Saturday  night,"  said  a  prominent  manufacturer,  re- 


AFTER    HOURS  385 

cently,  "to  see  whose  salary  I  can  raise.  My  men  are 
far  less  anxious  for  advancement  than  I  am  to  promote 
them." 

The  individual  who  takes  advantage  of  opportunities 
for  advancement  cannot  fail  to  be  of  greater  worth  to 
his  employer,  to  the  industry,  to  his  own  home,  and  to 
the  community — facts  which  are  positive  assets  in  indus- 
trial, social,  and  civic  stability. 

In  modern  business  there  is  little  room  for  sentiment; 
the  employer  demands  a  cash  equivalent  for  each  dollar 
paid  out.  The  situation  is  reflected  by  the  commercial 
proverb,  "Business  is  business. "  But  here  and  there 
employers  are  realizing  that  investment  in  manhood 
pays;  that  improved  men  as  well  as  improved  machines 
have  economic  value,  because  a  more  vigorous  man  can 
do  more  work,  a  more  intelligent  man  will  do  better 
work,  and  a  more  conscientious  man  will  do  more  careful 
work. 

It  is  not  fair,  however,  to  expect  employers  to  do  all. 
There  is  a  direct  relation  between  capital,  labor,  and 
management,  the  three  elements  essential  to  every  en- 
terprise. Capital  is  useless  without  management  to  di- 
rect its  resources,  and  in  turn  capital  and  management 
are  dependent  on  labor  to  execute  their  will.  Capi- 
tal's chief  concern,  from  commercial  as  well  as  human- 
itarian motives,  should  be  the  improvement  of  the 
workers'  condition.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  the  in- 
terest of  labor  not  to  view  with  suspicion  the  overtures 
made  in  its  behalf,  but  to  meet  them  in  a  friendly  spirit, 
with  a  mind  open  and  ready  to  co-operate.  It  is  only 
in  this  way  that  all  parties  can  reap  the  fullest  returns 
from  mutuality. 

Not  by  the  churches,  not  by  the  universities  and  col- 


386  SAFETY 

leges,  not  by  the  common  schools,  but  by  the  great  cap- 
tains of  industry  who  are  recognizing  and  providing  for 
an  all-round  development,  is  the  character  of  the  ordi- 
nary man  being  molded  and  shaped  along  lines  of  civic 
and  social  usefulness.  Never  before  in  the  history  of  the 
world  have  employers  had  such  colossal  opportunities 
for  guiding  and  helping  the  thousands  of  men  and  women 
who  spend  at  least  one-third  of  each  working-day  in 
their  employ.  When  employers  realize  that  they  hold 
within  their  grasp  the  possibilities  of  industrial  content- 
ment, social  stability,  and  communal  welfare,  all  direct 
factors  in  greater  production,  they  will  plan  and  scheme 
how  to  improve  the  condition  of  their  employees  with  the 
same  zeal  they  now  devote  to  promoting  the  mechanical 
efficiency  of  their  business,  extending  its  operations  and 
reaching  out  for  the  acquisition  of  new  commercial  ter- 
ritory. 

From  a  shack  consisting  merely  of  a  roof  and  a  number 
of  bunks  has  been  developed  the  modern  "rest-house'* 
for  the  railroad  man.  If  the  man  who  "makes  the  wheels 
go  round"  is  not  as  carefully  tended  as  the  wheels,  en- 
gines, car,  or  road-bed,  no  amount  of  mechanical  skill  or 
efficiency  will  equal  the  human  equation.  Perhaps  the 
first  essential  of  this  new  idea  is  relaxation  in  attractive 
form.  The  railroad  rest-house  of  to-day  is  a  commodious 
structure,  equipped  with  a  restaurant,  private  rooms, 
and  dormitories,  furnishing  accommodations  at  rates  at 
least  50  per  cent,  lower  than  elsewhere,  with  the  free  use 
of  gymnasium,  baths,  library,  class  and  lecture  rooms. 
Some  of  the  lectures  are  delivered  by  the  heads  of  de- 
partments. In  this  way  those  who  are  managing  and 
those  who  are  operating  the  road — the  generals  and  the 
privates  of  the  railroad  army — "get  together,"  and  come 


AFTER    HOURS  387 

into  personal  contact,  favorable  to  their  own  interests 
and  those  of  the  traveling  public. 

At  the  New  York  terminal  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road billiard  and  pool  tables,  bowling-alleys,  and  a  gym- 
nasium offer  the  employee  relaxation  and  healthful 
recreation.  The  clubhouse  contains  150  bedrooms  for 
the  use  of  trainmen  and  crews.  Some  of  the  rooms  are 
single,  and  others  are  arranged  on  the  dormitory  plan; 
all  the  furnishings  are  simple,  but  thoroughly  comforta- 
ble. In  these  surroundings  the  trainman  is  safely  housed 
for  the  night  for  ten  cents. 

The  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company,  wisely  recognizing 
the  fact  that  social  intercourse  is  instinctive  and  when  prop- 
erly directed  is  stimulating  and  wholesome,  have  attempt- 
ed to  gratify  this  human  need  by  organizing  clubhouses, 
intended  to  modify  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  among  the 
men.  Liquor  is  sold,  but  under  certain  well-defined 
regulations,  and  various  forms  of  wholesome  amusement 
are  provided  to  take  the  place  of  the  demoralizing  features 
of  the  saloon.  The  bar  is  located  immediately  in  the  rear 
of  the  porch,  and  is  furnished  in  a  very  plain  and  un- 
attractive manner,  no  display  of  bottles,  pictures,  or  other 
suggestions  to  drink  being  permitted.  The  furniture  and 
furnishings  are  plain,  and  everything  is  conducted  in  a 
quiet  and  orderly  manner. 

The  clubhouse  is  for  the  use  of  members  from  9  A.M.  to  10 
P.M.  daily,  except  Saturdays,  when  it  is  open  an  hour  later. 

Playing  for  small  stakes  is  permitted,  but  in  no  event  are 
they  allowed  to  exceed  a  stated  low  limit.  In  order  to 
control  the  quantity  of  wine,  beer,  and  liquors  which  may 
be  sold  in  the  clubhouse,  no  member  or  visitor  is  per- 
mitted to  buy  a  drink  for  any  other  member  or  visitor- 

This  "no  treating"  rule  is  rigorously  enforced. 
26 


388  SAFETY 

At  the  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  and  Coal  Company's  mines 
the  sordidness  of  the  usual  mining- village  has  disappeared 
through  the  provision  of  playgrounds  and  parks,  planting 
of  thousands  of  shade  trees,  and  the  conversion  of  barren 
hills  and  unsightly  cinder  dumps  into  green  lawns  and 
terraces. 

Streets  and  alleys  have  been  graded  and  made  of  uni- 
form width.  Tons  upon  tons  of  cement  have  been  used 
in  the  construction  of  cribbing  and  retaining  walls,  of 
culverts,  crossings,  and  walks. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Frick  employees  bear  not  the 
slightest  resemblance  to  the  ordinary  "company  houses." 
Every  house  is  built  on  a  substantial  stone  foundation, 
on  high  ground,  is  well  plastered,  has  a  dry  cellar  and 
attic,  and  front  and  back  porches.  Windows  and  doors 
are  tight  and  weather-proof.  The  company  sees  that 
the  houses  are  kept  well  painted,  and  insists  that  the 
tenants  keep  their  fences  and  cellar  walls  whitewashed, 
for  which  purpose  lime  is  furnished  to  them  free  of 
charge. 

There  are  some  four-room  houses  for  the  smaller 
families,  but  the  average  house  has  six  rooms.  Running 
water,  at  least  in  the  kitchen,  is  to  be  found  in  most  of 
the  houses,  and  many  of  them  are  provided  with  bath- 
rooms. In  the  towns  where  the  company  generates  its 
own  electricity  the  houses  have  been  fitted  up  for  elec- 
trical lighting.  For  the  light,  fuel,  and  water  used  by 
the  tenants  of  the  company  no  charge  is  made.  The 
average  rental  of  a  company  house  is  $7  per  month. 
Many  of  the  smaller  houses  may  be  rented  for  less. 

Each  house  has  a  front  yard  or  lawn  of  good  size  and 
a  large  garden.  The  tenants  are  encouraged  and  assisted 
in  the  cultivation  of  their  lawns  and  gardens,  for  which 


A   WORKMAN  S   GARDEN 


PLAYGROUND   FOR  CHILDREN  OF  FACTORY   EMPLOYEES.      NATIONAL   TUBE    COMPANY 


AFTER    HOURS  389 

the  company  furnishes  free  fertilizer,  and  its  own  teams 
and  men  to  convey  the  manure  from  the  stables  and  dis- 
tribute it.  Seeds  and  implements  are  supplied  at  cost. 
Some  of  the  houses  have  lots  of  80  x  130  feet;  others  of 
half  that  width  but  equal  length.  At  one  large  plant,  in 
order  to  give  the  tenants  more  room,  whole  rows  of  houses 
were  moved  back  about  thirty  feet.  The  average  worth 
of  these  gardens  is  $50  each.  Many  of  them  are  worth 
a  great  deal  more  than  that. 

The  Frick  Company  has  63  active  plants,  with  about 
5,000  houses  all  told.  With  very  few  exceptions,  the 
tenants  of  these  houses  cultivate  their  gardens  and  keep 
up  beautiful  lawns  and  flower-beds  as  well. 

If  each  garden  returns  at  least  $50  to  its  owner,  it  can 
be  seen  that  the  workers  in  the  Frick  towns  are  enriched 
each  year  to  the  extent  of  nearly  $250,000  through  their 
gardens  alone. 

But,  quite  apart  from  the  financial  returns  and  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  fresh  and  wholesome  vegetables  for 
their  tables,  these  gardens  are  of  inestimable  value  in 
cultivating  thrift  and  domesticity,  and  in  making  useful 
citizens  of  the  workmen. 

To  stimulate  interest  in  gardening  the  company  an- 
nually awards  six  prizes  at  each  plant,  three  for  the 
best  gardens  and  three  for  the  best-kept  lawns  and  finest 
beds  of  flowers.  The  gardens  and  lawns  are  inspected 
by  committees  of  disinterested  citizens,  and  substantial 
cash  prizes  awarded  according  to  their  decisions.  The 
keenest  rivalry  exists  between  tenants  for  the  garden 
and  lawn  prizes.  The  heads  of  families  who  are  inclined 
to  be  shiftless  and  lazy  are  stirred  into  activity  by  the 
industrious,  and,  once  interested  in  the  competition,  be- 
come enthusiastic. 


3QO  SAFETY 

Waldenburg,  in  Schlesia,  recognized  the  efficacy  of  the 
small  garden  as  a  saloon  substitute  and  a  means  of 
recreation  by  establishing,  in  1911,  1,409  little  plots. 
Some  of  the  land  was  given  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture, 
the  Society  of  Mines  and  Factories,  and  other  tracts  were 
rented  from  private  individuals.  There  is  no  rental 
charge  to  the  workmen  for  these  allotment  gardens.  Seed 
and  shrubs  are  given  by  the  society,  but  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  land  shall  be  used  for  the  raising  of 
vegetables,  flowers,  berries,  and  fruit.  The  raising  of 
chickens,  rabbits,  goats,  and  bees  is  not  approved.  The 
small  tracts  come  under  a  garden  commission  of  twenty- 
two  members,  who  report  that  of  the  1,409  little  plots 
972  were  very  good,  231  good,  120  fair,  57  passable,  and 
29  poor. 

"  The  great  value  of  our  garden  has  not  been  the  fine 
vegetables  it  has  yielded  all  summer  and  the  good  time 
the  children  have  had  in  the  open  air,  but  the  glasses  of 
absinthe  my  husband  hasn't  taken,"  observed  the  mother 
of  a  French  working-man's  numerous  family. 

Of  the  French  railroads  the  Northern  has  gardens  of 
from  358  to  598  square  yards  each  for  3,000  of  its  men; 
the  Eastern  offers  gardens  to  2,800  of  its  trainmen  and 
820  station  agents;  on  the  Southern  some  2,600  shelters 
are  built,  each  having  attached  a  little  plot  of  598  square 
yards,  while  650  station  agents  and  clerks  have  allotments 
of  717  to  837  square  yards  each;  altogether  this  one  line 
sets  aside  448  acres.  The  Orleans  Railway  not  only  pro- 
vides 6,062  members  of  its  staff  with  little  gardens,  but 
contributes  to  this  movement  at  Tours,  where  30  gardens 
are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  families  of  the  men  em- 
ployed in  the  stations. 

Collections  and  museums,  when  properly  interpreted, 


AFTER    HOURS  391 

play  an  important  r61e  in  recreation,  particularly  when 
the  visiting  workman  brings  with  him  a  fund  of  knowl- 
edge gained  in  the  field  in  which  he  has  worked. 

In  this  class  falls  the  Royal  Museum  of  Traffic  and 
Construction  in  Berlin,  where  engineers,  city  officials,  and 
technical  students  are  interested  and  stimulated  by  ex- 
hibits of  traffic  and  construction  as  they  appear  to-day. 
Historical  and  retrospective  exhibits  reconstruct  and 
vivify  details  and  processes  of  the  past.  The  largest 
number  of  the  exhibits  relate  to  the  railway  service  and 
include:  construction  of  railway  beds  and  their  mainte- 
nance; engineering  for  elevated  constructions,  viaducts, 
and  tunnels;  signaling  systems,  telegraph  and  telephone 
plants;  locomotives  and  cars,  electric-power  plants;  rail- 
way workshops  and  machinery;  service  and  traffic. 

There  is  a  large  collection  of  models,  drawings,  statis- 
tical information  and  graphics  in  connection  with  the 
care  of  employees,  including  improved  dwellings,  sanatoria 
for  the  treatment  of  tubercular  diseases,  invalids'  homes, 
workmen's  sick  relief  and  pension  funds,  accident  insur- 
ance, temporary  lodgings  for  employees  who  may  be 
obliged,  when  on  service,  to  stay  away  from  their  homes 
overnight,  rest  and  recreation  rooms,  dining-rooms, 
cooking  and  heating  appliances,  baking  establishments, 
and  other  forms  of  efficiency  promotion.  In  the  section 
of  hygiene  are  also  found  an  interesting  collection  of  pro- 
tective garments.  Worthy  of  note  are  the  models  and 
special  arrangements  for  rescue  work,  including  relief 
trains  and  first-aid-to-the-injured  equipments. 

Two  industrialists  in  Leipsig,  Koerting  and  Mathiesen, 
after  a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  of  their  employees, 
reached  the  conclusion  that  when  the  strength  of  workers 
is  used  up  it  is  not  enough  merely  to  replenish  the  de- 


392  SAFETY 

pleted  store;  reserve  force  must  also  be  built  up  against 
future  need.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  periods  of  rest 
for  mind  and  body.  Comparatively  few  recognize  this 
and  have  the  means  to  do  it. 

Koerting  and  Mathiesen  built  a  vacation  home  in  the 
mountains  near  Leipsig,  with  the  object  of  giving  all  their 
employees  a  free  vacation  at  this  holiday  home.  It  is  not 
only  a  health  home,  but  a  place  of  recreation  for  the  well. 
There  are  accommodations  for  300,  the  rest  season  con- 
tinuing from  May  to  October.  The  families  of  married 
men  or  other  dependents  receive  a  certain  sum  from 
the  firm  while  the  head  of  the  house  is  on  his  vacation. 
Any  convalescent  workman,  having  been  with  the  com- 
pany one  year,  can  have  the  advantage  of  the  home  for 
a  period  not  to  exceed  four  weeks.  For  this  phase  of  their 
mutuality  work  the  firm  set  aside  $125,000  to  build  and 
maintain  the  holiday  house. 

When  an  employer  sees  groups  of  young  men,  among 
whom  may  be  some  of  his  own  employees,  gathered  at 
street  corners  on  Sunday  afternoons  he  might  ask  him- 
self if  it  would  not  be  "good  business"  to  initiate  some 
movement  for  recreation  that  would  send  these  fellows 
to  bed  with  clearer  heads  and  heavier  pocket-books. 
One  subtle  test  of  the  standard  of  a  modern  city  is  the 
amount  of  wholesome  recreation  it  affords  its  citizens. 

Dresden  well  understood  this  social  philosophy  in  the 
establishment,  twenty-five  years  ago,  of  a  real  People's 
Club,  or  what  is  known  as  the  "Volks  Verein,"  with  a 
membership  of  some  10,000.  The  membership  fee  is  fifty 
cents.  In  addition  to  the  usual  educational  and  recrea- 
tional features  there  is  a  people's  theater.  Eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  members  are  sturdy  patrons  of  this  theater; 
they  are  deeply  rooted  in  the  Verein,  having  grown  up 


AFTER    HOURS  393 

with  it  from  childhood,  and  by  means  of  its  publications 
are  kept  fully  informed  of  its  various  activities. 

The  theater  started  in  1894  as  a  nature  theater  in  one 
of  the  parks.  This  was  so  successful  that  the  desire  for  a 
people's  theater  in  the  city  was  expressed.  At  first  the 
performers  were  amateurs.  In  summer,  when  the  profes- 
sionals were  not  engaged,  their  services  also  were  obtained. 
There  was  great  difficulty  in  getting  artists  from  the  regu- 
lar theaters,  as  they  did  not  know  the  popular  plays.  In 
1908  the  Verein  rented  a  large  hall  in  Dresden,  with  a 
seating-capacity  of  sixteen  hundred.  The  actors  were 
engaged  by  the  day,  some  of  them  giving  their  services. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  Sunday  dramatics  for  the 
children  were  begun  and  received  enthusiastically.  Since 
January,  1900,  Mondays  are  devoted  to  renditions  of 
the  classics,  with  one  opera  each  month.  On  Wednesday 
afternoons  classic  plays  for  the  children  are  given. 

The  attraction  of  this  people's  theater  is  most  strong, 
and  the  clientele  feel  that  they  are  members  of  the  same 
family,  so  to  speak.  They  tell  or  write  the  director  just 
what  they  think  of  the  plays,  for  is  it  not  their  theater? 
Whole  families  attend,  places  being  reserved  for  them. 
Between  the  acts  they  discuss  the  play  and  the  players. 
The  management  controls  the  eating  and  drinking,  no 
service  of  refreshments  %being  permitted  during  the  play. 
The  popular  audiences  are  the  most  impressionable ;  there 
is  always  more  applause  and  recognition  of  merit  than 
in  the  other  playhouses,  by  clapping  or  laughing  or  by 
stillness.  All  this  has  an  inspiring  effect  upon  the 
actors.  Demands  are  put  upon  the  Verein  that  the 
best  talent  shall  be  engaged.  Thus  this  stage  is  moral- 
ized, and  becomes  an  educational  factor  in  the  life  of 
the  workers. 


394  SAFETY 

Prices  for  seats  are  so  low  that  there  is  no  competition 
with  the  other  theaters;  in  fact,  the  taste  of  many  has 
been  so  developed  for  the  better  presentations  that  when 
such  are  given  at  other  theaters  many  people  attend  them 
also. 

Classic  poets,  modern  serious  plays,  light  comedies,  and 
farces  are  played,  and  certain  days  set  aside  for  each. 
Monday  night  is  for  the  classic  drama,  Wednesday  for 
comedy,  Thursday  for  the  lighter  presentations,  while 
Sunday  afternoons  are  devoted  to  fairy  tales  for  the 
children,  with  comedies  and  farces  in  the  evening. 

Last  year  some  sixteen  special  performances  were  given 
for  societies  who  engaged  the  theater  for  one  night  each; 
among  them  were  the  railwaymen's  association,  carpen- 
ters, soldiers,  civil  service,  and  tradesmen. 


XXIV 

THE   AMERICAN   MUSEUM   OF    SAFETY 

THE  last  few  years  have  seen  a  wonderful  awakening 
of  the  public  mind  to  the  importance  of  making 
industry  less  dangerous.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting 
manifestation  of  this  modern  attitude  has  been  in  the 
founding,  of  museums  of  safety.  A  museum  of  safety 
is  an  economic  necessity.  It  occupies  in  its  field  the  same 
position  that  public  schools  do  in  their  field.  It  has 
proved  itself  a  necessary  part  of  modern  industrialism,  and 
it  has  come  to  stay. 

It  has  been  said  that  our  country  is  the  greatest  com- 
mercial and  industrial  nation  in  the  world.  If  other 
countries  have  demonstrated  that  a  museum  of  safety 
is  a  scientific  and  practical  necessity,  the  United  States 
more  than  all  others  should  see  to  it  that  her  museum  of 
safety  covers  the  needs  of  every  trade  and  industry 
throughout  the  entire  nation:  an  institution  with  ade- 
quate provision  for  exhibits,  lectures,  study,  experi- 
ments, tests,  and  a  specialized  library — sufficiently  great 
to  meet  the  needs  of  all  interested  in  the  safety  and 
welfare  of  workers  and,  indeed,  of  all  humanity. 

There  are  now  twenty-three  museums  of  safety  and 
institutes  for  the  study  of  industrial  hygiene — namely, 
in  Amsterdam,  Barcelona,  Berlin,  Brussels,  Budapest,  Co- 
penhagen, Dresden,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Gratz,  Hel- 
singfors,  London,  Milan,  Montreal,  Moscow,  Munich,  New 


396  SAFETY 

York,  Paris  (safety),  Paris  (hygiene),  St.  Petersburg, 
Stockholm,  Vienna,  Wurzburg,  and  Zurich.  The  Amer- 
ican Museum  of  Safety  in  New  York  City  is  the  only 
institution  of  this  kind  in  the  United  States. 

Recently  the  director  of  the  Berlin  Museum  of  Safety 
asked  for  eighty-three  thousand  marks  for  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  building,  already  overcrowded.  This  request 
was  instantly  granted,  and  it  was  intimated  that  he  could 
have  all  the  money  he  needed,  as  the  government  was 
only  too  glad  to  maintain  this  life-saving  station  at  its 
highest  efficiency.  Other  European  countries  were  not 
slow  in  realizing  the  importance  of  museums  of  safety, 
which  received  their  greatest  impetus  during  the  last 
decade. 

The  labor  inspectors  of  Holland  have  found  their 
safety  museum  of  the  greatest  service  in  meeting  objec- 
tions that  safety  devices  in  question  will  interfere  with  the 
proper  operation  of  machinery.  If  a  manufacturer  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  photograph  of  an  appliance  he  can 
send  his  superintendent,  or  go  himself,  to  the  museum 
of  safety,  where  he  can  study  every  detail  of  the  operation. 
Often  a  visitor  to  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  will 
confess  that  if  he  had  come  earlier  and  learned  of  certain 
safeguards  there  would  not  have  occurred  some  recent 
catastrophe  in  his  factory  which  killed  men  and  hurt 
his  business.  Not  only  employers  but  also  the  workers 
and  the  general  public  may  go  to  a  museum  of  safety 
to  see  and  study  in  actual  operation,  or  by  means  of 
models  and  photographs,  the  simplest  and  best  methods 
of  protecting  dangerous  machines  and  processes. 

While  such  a  museum  is  primarily  for  the  education  of 
the  employer  and  the  employee,  in  pointing  out  to  the 
former  what  safety  devices  he  should  install  and  showing 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY    397 

the  latter  how  to  use  them  when  provided,  it  has  also  the 
important  function  of  inculcating  safety  and  caution 
through  the  community. 

Impairment  of  the  wage-earning  efficiency  of  the  in- 
dividual entails  a  social  obligation  through  the  provision 
and  maintenance  of  the  hospital,  with  its  first  aid,  ambu- 
lance, and  other  services.  No  self-respecting  workman 
wishes  to  be  made  the  recipient  of  charity ;  yet,  if  the  earn- 
ing power  of  the  head  of  the  family  or  breadwinner  is 
snuffed  out  by  an  accident,  he  and  his  dependents  are 
made  dependents  of  the  community.  The  mother  and 
children,  in  most  cases  unskilled  workers,  must  accept  a 
wage  insufficient  for  their  needs,  and,  consequently, 
charity  must  step  in  to  support  and  educate  them. 

The  stamina  of  children  reared  in  charity  is  weakened; 
their  moral  fiber  is  impaired,  resulting  in  lowered  stand- 
ards of  morals,  education,  and  citizenship.  All  this 
means  an  increased  burden  on  municipal  departments  of 
health,  charity,  and  relief. 

One  very  valuable  function  of  a  museum  of  safety  is 
the  prevention  of  wasted  effort  and  time.  Such  a  per- 
manent exposition  of  safety  devices  is  a  clearing-house 
for  new  ideas,  where  an  inventor  can  quickly  prove  the 
success  of  his  invention  or  be  convinced  that  his  further 
efforts  are  useless. 

The  first  museum  of  safety  on  the  Western  Hemisphere 
was  incorporated  by  a  special  charter  from  the  Legislature, 
Chapter  152  of  the  laws  of  1911,  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  According  to  the  chapter: 

The  objects  of  the  corporation  hereby  created  are  to  study  and  pro- 
mote means  and  methods  of  safety  and  sanitation  and  the  application 
thereof  to  any  and  all  public  or  private  occupations  whatsoever,  and 
of  advancing  knowledge  of  kindred  subjects;  and  to  that  end  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  a  museum,  library,  and  laboratories,  and  their 


398  SAFETY 

branches  wherein  all  matters,  methods,  and  means  for  improving  the 
general  condition  of  the  people  as  to  their  safety  and  health  may  be 
studied,  tested,  and  promoted,  with  a  view  to  lessening  the  number  of 
casualties  and  avoiding  death;  and  to  disseminate  the  results  of  such 
study,  researches,  and  test  by  lectures,  exhibitions,  and  other  publi- 
cations. 

The  museum  is  non-commercial;  it  is  not  a  showroom 
for  patented  safety  devices ;  it  does  not  sell  or  take  orders 
for  any  of  the  devices  in  its  collections;  all  demonstra- 
tions are  made  by  its  own  staff;  and  there  is  no  charge 
for  space. 

The  museum  is  devoted  to  the  safety,  health,  and  wel- 
fare of  industrial  workers  and  the  technique  and  science 
of  industry.  With  this  end  in  view,  its  operations  are 
divided  into  three  great  departments — accident  preven- 
tion, industrial  hygiene,  and  mutuality. 

The  exhibits  in  the  department  of  accident  prevention 
are  divided  into  two  groups. 


i.  GENERAL 

Boilers,  Containers,  Steam-piping  Elevators  and  Hoists 

Power-machines  Fire  and  Explosions 

Transmission  Personal  Equipment  of  Workmen 

Electricity  Miscellaneous 


2.  PARTICULAR 

Mining  Quarrying,  Excavation 

Blast-furnace  and  Foundry  Metal-working 

Wood-working  Chemical  Industries 

Stone  and  Clays  Textiles  and  Clothing 

Paper  and  Printing  Food-stuffs 

Agriculture  Building  Trades 

Transportation  by  Land  Transportation  by  Sea 
First  Aid  to  the  Injured 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY     399 

INDUSTRIAL  HYGIENE 

Apparatus  and  Instruments  for  Exposition  of  Substances  Det- 

the  Testing  of  Air,  Light,  and  rimental  to  Health 

Water  Lighting 

Ventilation  Exhaust  for  Dust  and  Gases 

Infectious    Diseases — Tubercu-  Baths,      Dining-rooms,     and 

losis  Clothing 

Water-closets  and  Lavatories  Personal    Equipment   of  the 

Miscellaneous  Worker 

MUTUALITY  OR  SOCIAL  HYGIENE 

Improved  Dwellings  Food-stuffs 

Service  Annuities  Miscellaneous 

A  jury  of  experts  in  each  group  will  pass  on  the  suit- 
ability of  all  exhibits,  which  must  have  safety,  hygiene,  or 
welfare  as  essentials. 

The  museum  provides  demonstrators,  descriptive  cir- 
culars, care,  and  maintenance.  All  cost  of  transportation 
to  and  from  the  museum  is  at  the  expense  of  the  exhibitor, 
and  all  installations  must  be  made  by  the  exhibitor,  under 
the  direction  of  the  museum. 

The  collections  are  open  daily — except  on  Sundays  and 
holidays — and  free  to  the  public;  but  special  visits  can  be 
made  by  arrangement  to  accommodate  groups  of  students 
or  workmen. 

In  the  museum's  iron  and  steel  section,  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Charles  Kirchhoff,  may  be  found  illustra- 
tions of  safety  devices  in  actual  size,  models  or  photographs, 
in  use  in  the  iron  and  steel  and  allied  industries :  blast-fur- 
naces, open-hearth,  bessemer.  blooming,  rail,  skelp,  slab- 
bing, galvanizing,  pipe,  and  wire  mills;  power-stations, 
yards,  shops ;  electricity  and  transportation.  These  collec- 
tions are  constantly  being  studied  by  engineers,  factory  in- 


400  SAFETY 

specters,  and  foremen,  who  make  drawings  and  tracings 
for  use  in  their  own  plants. 

It  is  proposed  to  set  aside  a  small  portion  of  the  museum 
space  as  an  inventors'  laboratory,  where  they  may  work 
at  their  devices  during  such  hours  as  may  be  recommended 
by  the  advisory  council.  As  this  help  to  the  inventor  is 
intended  only  for  worthy  cases,  no  charge  will  be  made, 
although,  of  course,  every  inventor  must  bring  his  own 
material  and  be  responsible  for  all  breakage.  The  fact 
that  an  inventor  has  had  the  use  of  this  laboratory  will 
be  a  guarantee  that  his  idea  is  worth  perfecting,  and  will 
insure  a  hearing  from  the  capitalist,  whom  he  may  be 
seeking  to  interest. 

The  museum's  library  contains  the  most  highly  special- 
ized collection  in  this  country  of  books,  pamphlets,  photo- 
graphs, lantern  slides,  and  special  reports. 

These  are  the  facilities  that  are  to  be  met  at  the  mu- 
seum's headquarters.  On  its  extension  side  may  be  men- 
tioned the  free  illustrated  lectures  on  accident  prevention 
and  industrial  hygiene.  The  iron  and  steel  section  alone 
has  conducted  an  educational  campaign  at  mills  and  plants, 
where  superintendents,  works  managers,  engineers,  and 
foremen  have  assembled  to  learn  what  has  been  accom- 
plished through  the  introduction  of  safeguards  and  hygienic 
measures  in  their  industry.  In  some  instances  the  meet- 
ings have  been  limited  to  the  personnel  of  the  plant,  no 
men  under  the  grade  of  foreman  being  present.  These 
audiences  have  ranged  from  300  to  2,100  men. 

Through  its  lectures,  publications,  and  personal  con- 
ferences the  museum  has  reached  every  industrial  state 
in  the  Union;  and  it  has  been  the  source  of  inspiration 
for  state  commissions  of  workmen's  compensation. 

It  has  also  co-operated  with  the  various  state  depart- 


ONE    OF   THE    EXPOSITION-ROOMS    AT   THE   AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY 


THE    NORTON   COMPANY'S    EXHIBIT    AT   THE    AMERICAN    MUSEUM   OF    SAFETY 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY    401 

ments  of  labor.  For  example,  a  week's  campaign  was 
conducted  in  Minnesota,  with  the  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
for  the  purpose  of  arousing  interest  in  accident  prevention 
in  that  state.  The  present  activity  in  Minnesota  may  be 
traced  directly  to  the  influence  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Safety. 

Commissioners  of  labor  from  other  states  have  made 
frequent  visits  to  the  museum  for  study  and  inspiration. 
The  Commissioner  of  Labor  of  New  Jersey,  and  his  in- 
spectors, have  spent  much  time  at  the  museum  taking 
copious  notes  and  securing  working  -  drawings  of  the 
various  devices,  photographs,  and  lantern  slides.  The 
resources  and  the  personal  services  of  the  museum's  staff 
were  freely  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  representatives 
of  New  Jersey's  Department  of  Labor. 

The  Department  of  Labor  of  the  state  of  New  York 
is  using  the  museum  as  a  training-school  for  its  inspectors, 
where  the  latest  and  best  methods  for  safeguarding  ma- 
chines and  dangerous  processes  may  be  studied.  Candi- 
dates for  positions  as  state  factory  inspectors  have  made 
use  «f  the  collections  of  the  museum  in  preparing  them- 
selves for  the  civil-service  examinations.  Several  of  these 
candidates  have  returned  to  the  museum  to  report  their 
success  and  to  express  their  thanks  for  the  practical 
assistance  rendered  them.  The  museum  is,  in  fact,  the 
only  training-school  in  the  United  States  where  factory 
inspectors  may  prepare  themselves  for  their  responsible 
positions. 

Inspectors  employed  by  the  great  casualty  insurance 
companies  have  used  the  museum  in  like  manner.  On  one 
occasion  the  Travelers  Insurance  Company,  at  considera- 
ble expense,  ordered  their'inspectors  from  all  over  the  coun- 
try to  assemble  for  special  study  of  the  museum  collections. 


402  SAFETY 

Many  leading  industrialists  have  sent  members  of  their 
official  staffs,  managers  and  superintendents,  to  the 
museum  for  similar  investigations.  One  large  iron  and 
steel  company  in  1912  made  four  special  visits  through 
representative  bodies  made  up  of  its  foremen  and  selected 
workmen.  So  rich  were  these  study  visits  in  results  that 
this  company  has  incorporated  them  in  its  policy  for  the 
prevention  of  accidents  in  its  works. 

Last  year,  at  the  request  of  the  United  States  Navy 
Department,  the  museum  made  a  two-days'  inspection 
of  the  Philadelphia  navy-yard.  Upon  this  investigation 
was  based  a  report  of  conditions  and  suggestions  for  the 
introduction  of  safety  devices.  This  report  was  then 
sent  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  by  whose  direction  it 
was  copied  and  sent  to  every  navy-yard  in  the  country. 
The  practical  character  of  this  work  of  inspection  led  the 
Navy  Department  to  request  that  the  museum  make 
special  researches  abroad  in  1912  on  the  best  methods 
of  preventing  lead-poisoning  and  attendant  occupational 
diseases.  The  second  report  is  now  being  prepared. 

Other  inspections  have  been  conducted  by  the  museum 
in  iron  and  steel  mills,  gas  and  electric-light  stations, 
automobile  plants,  factories,  and  public  institutions  in 
Denver,  St.  Louis,  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Altoona,  Day- 
ton, New  York,  and  other  industrial  centers.  In  many 
of  these  plants  the  management  assembled  the  workmen 
for  illustrated  talks  on  accident  prevention.  These  con- 
ferences were  in  the  nature  of  an  executive  session,  with 
every  opportunity  for  questions  and  answers,  by  which 
this  specialized  information  was  made  available  for  im- 
mediate application  and  use. 

The  American  Museum  of  Safety  is  officially  related 
with  all  the  great  museums  of  safety  and  hygiene  in  the 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY    403 

world.  Thus  banded  together  they  can  readily  exchange 
information,  plans,  and  exhibits.  The  American  Museum 
of  Safety  in  New  York  receives  the  latest  authoritative 
facts  relating  to  the  conservation  of  human  life  in  the 
Old  World. 

Last  year  the  museum's  resources  were  greatly  enriched 
by  specialized  exhibits  in  the  form  of  models  collected  by 
the  director  and  illustrating  occupational  diseases  and 
industrial  poisons.  This  collection  is  unique  and  forms 
the  basis  of  the  section  of  industrial  hygiene,  of  which 
our  country  may  be  proud. 

Sir  Arthur  Whitelegge,  his  Majesty's  Chief  Inspector 
of  Factories  for  Great  Britain,  made  a  special  visit  to  the 
museum  last  year.  He  was  so  impressed  with  the  prac- 
tical character  of  the  work  that  he  will  use  it  as  a  model 
for  the  London  Museum  of  Safety,  for  which  a  site  has 
already  been  acquired. 

By  formal  authorization  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Education  classroom  instruction  in  safety  and  caution, 
illustrated  by  simple  models,  is  now  being  given  to  the 
785,642  children  in  the  public  schools  of  New  York, 
showing  the  children  how  they  themselves  are  largely 
responsible  for  the  increasing  number  of  street  accidents 
and  how  they  may  avoid  these  perils.  The  parochial  and 
private  schools,  an  additional  150,000,  are  also  included 
in  this  work,  which  is  already  showing  results.  A  detailed 
account  of  the  museum's  safety  campaign  among  the 
school-children  will  be  found  elsewhere  in  this  volume, 
under  the  heading  of  "  Training  Future  Workers." 

To  further  stimulate  the  prevention  of  accidents  and 
the  promotion  of  industrial  hygiene  five  gold  medals  are 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety 

for  annual  award.     Three  of  these  are  in  general  fields: 
27 


404  SAFETY 

The  Scientific  American  gold  medal  for  the  most  efficient 
safety  device  invented  during  a  certain  number  of  years 
and  exhibited  at  the  museum;  The  Travelers  Insurance 
Company's  gold  medal,  awarded  to  the  American  em- 
ployer who  has  achieved  greatly  in  protecting  the 
lives  and  limbs  of  workmen;  and  The  Louis  Livingston 
Seaman  gold  medal  for  progress  and  achievement  in  the 
promotion  of  hygiene  and  the  mitigation  of  occupational 
disease.  The  E.  H.  Harriman  memorial  medal,  founded  by 
Mrs.  Harriman,  will  be  competed  for  by  American  steam 
railways,  for  the  best  record  in  accident  prevention  and 
hygiene  affecting  the  public  and  its  personnel  during  the 
current  year.  A  fifth  medal,  known  as  The  Rathenau 
gold  medal  of  the  Allgemeine  Elektricitaets  Gesellschaft, 
of  Berlin,  is  to  be  awarded  for  the  best  device  or  process 
in  the  electrical  industry  safeguarding  industrial  life  and 
health.  This  is  one  of  the  very  few  instances  where  the 
bestowal  of  a  high  European  honor  is  made  through  an 
American  institution. 

Such  an  institution  as  the  American  Museum  of 
Safety  is  not  coercive,  but  suggestive.  The  law  says  that 
dangerous  parts  of  machines  must  be  protected.  The 
museum,  through  its  jury  of  experts,  tries  to  place  on  view 
every  known  safety  device,  so  that  the  employer  may  select 
the  one  best  adapted  to  his  particular  needs:  in  other 
words,  the  museum  becomes  the  experimental  laboratory 
for  every  industrialist  in  the  country.  It  is  therefore 
obviously  to  the  interest  of  every  American  industrialist 
to  lend  both  his  financial  and  moral  support  to  the 
movement. 

The  great  organized  trade  and  labor  associations  could 
well  co-operate  with  such  a  museum,  helping  it  to  become 
a  storehouse  of  practical  information  for  accident  preven- 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY    405 

tion  and  workmen's  compensation.  This  material  would 
be  of  incalculable  value  for  use  in  factories  and  workshops, 
and  would  offer  a  foundation  for  the  preparation  and 
enactment  of  sane  and  effective  industrial  legislation. 

The  elimination  of  conditions  which  lead  to  accidents 
is  undoubtedly  the  work  of  a  specialist.  "  Safety 
Engineering'*  has  become  a  specialized  department  of 
professional  activity.  But  even  for  the  safety  engineer 
there  must  be  a  field  of  training,  a  place  to  acquire  in- 
formation, a  place  where  he  and  all  others  interested  may 
make  comparative  studies.  Such  a  training-school  is  the 
museum  of  safety. 

The  careful  elimination  of  industrial  hazards  has  ad- 
vantages not  confined  to  the  individual  worker;  they 
extend  to  the  community  at  large;  they  look  to  the 
elimination  of  class  differences  between  capital  and  labor; 
they  eliminate  accidents  which  diminish  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  workers;  still  further,  they  prevent  these 
workers  and  those  dependent  upon  them  from  changing 
from  the  purchasing  to  the  dependent  class,  from  an  asset 
to  a  liability  upon  the  community. 

For  these  and  other  reasons  the  Plan  and  Scope  Com- 
mittee of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  looks  forward 
to  the  time  when  the  city  and  state  of  New  York  shall  have 
a  museum  comparing  not  unfavorably  with  the  great 
institutions  in  Europe. 

It  is  not  the  thought  that  in  this  only  private  benevo- 
lence should  be  sought,  but  rather  that  here  is  an  obligation 
resting  upon  city  and  state  to  be  met  by  the  same  public 
support  that  now  is  given  to  any  other  important  and 
necessary  educational  movement. 

There  is  daily  confirmation  of  the  contention  that  50 
per  cent,  of  accidents  in  American  industries  are  prevent- 


4o6  SAFETY 

able.  This  degree  of  safety  is  obtainable  by  educational 
means;  by  daily  propaganda  through  museums  of  safety; 
by  rules  and  regulations  for  accident  prevention  in  fac- 
tories and  workshops;  popular  lectures,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  easily  comprehended  pamphlets.  This  educational 
movement  properly  starts  with  readers  placed  in  the  hands 
of  school-children  inculcating  ideas  of  safety  and  caution 
at  the  very  foundation  of  the  child's  life. 

Our  chase  after  the  dollar  has  often  pushed  humanitarian 
considerations  to  the  rear.  We  have  laid  ourselves  open 
to  a  criticism  from  one  of  the  most  influential  German 
trade  associations;  after  commenting  on  a  statistical 
report  of  35,000  deaths  and  2,000,000  accidents  in  the 
United  States  during  1907  it  went  on  to  observe  that  at 
least  one-third  of  these  deaths  and  accidents  could  have 
been  avoided  if  safety  devices  and  measures  of  prevention 
already  known  had  been  employed.  Our  system  of  state 
factory  inspection  was  criticized  in  that  it  did  not  have 
sufficient  control.  Continuing: 

Everywhere  in  America,  in  the  railways,  factories,  and  building 
trades,  we  can  see  how  little  regard  is  paid  to  human  life.  It  is  the 
cheapest  thing  in  the  world.  Thousands  of  times  we  read  in  the 
American  papers  human  life  is  as  cheap  as  dirt.  American  culture  and 
thought  are  founded  upon  a  purely  capitalistic  basis;  ours  rest  on  a 
patriotic  foundation.  Property  and  things  have  the  highest  value 
in  America,  and  these,  before  all,  are  protected  by  law.  A  man  must 
care  for  his  own  safety  himself. 

No  wonder  that  we  have  the  present  political  unrest, 
especially  among  the  workers;  no  wonder  that  they  turn 
with  eagerness  to  socialism  or  any  other  "isms"  which 
seem  to  offer  relief  from  the  present  socio-industrial  con- 
ditions ;  no  wonder  that  they  are  inveighing  against  class 
distinction  and  special  privileges. 


AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF    SAFETY     407 

The  trustees  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  feel 
that  their  continuous  educational  work  to  date  has  been 
a  large  factor  in  focusing  the  attention  of  the  country 
upon  the  need  of  a  greater  adoption  of  safety  devices 
and  provision  for  industrial  hygiene. 

The  American  Museum  of  Safety  stands  to-day  as  the 
only  concerted,  organized  effort  in  the  United  States  for 
demonstrating  .the  use  of  safeguards;  for  bringing  to 
industrialists  the  knowledge  of  these  devices,  by  means 
of  manuals,  leaflets,  a  special  report  service,  and  illus- 
trated lectures;  for  study  visits,  not  only  by  employers 
and  employees,  technical  men  and  factory  inspectors,  but 
also  by  teachers  and  the  scholars  in  our  public  schools  in 
whom,  as  the  coming  generation  of  wage-earners,  should 
be  inculcated  the  principles  of  safety  and  caution. 

So  much  reference  to  this  specific  center  of  instruction 
in  safety  has  been  necessary,  although  this  book  has 
been  prepared  to  place  broadly  before  the  public  the 
whole  subject  as  illustrated  in  the  experiences  and  needs 
of  representative  industries.  Safety  is  so  vital  a  phase 
of  industrial,  economic,  and  social  welfare  that  the  full 
presentation  of  its  consequence  should  be  sufficient  for 
its  general  recognition  and  for  larger  action  than  Ameri- 
cans have  taken  heretofore. 


INDEX 


Abrasive  strips,  before  wood- working 
machines,  73. 

Accident,  liability,  present  unfair 
and  wasteful  system  of,  5;  pre- 
miums, relation  of  risks  to,  u,  12; 
insurance,  beneficial  results  of,  in 
Germany,  13. 

Accident  prevention,  work  of  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  7,  130- 
135,  162;  work  of  German  trade 
associations,  n,  14,  128,  229; 
associations  of  French  and  Italian 
employers  for,  12;  responsibility 
of  foremen  and  superintendents  in, 
28,  29,  144;  instruction  of  new 
workers  with  regard  to,  28;  lec- 
tures on,  129,  220,  226,  352,  400; 
work  of  committees  of  safety  in, 
128,  et  seq.;  medals  for  notable 
achievements  in,  141,  206,  403; 
and  legislation,  194;  purchasing- 
agent  an  important  factor  in,  202 ; 
work  of  National  Metal  Trades  As- 
sociation, 220;  work  of  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers,  226; 
value  of  museums  of  safety  as 
practical  institutions  for,  395,^^. 
ccident  reports,  value  of,  133,  140, 
158,  186-187;  of  North  German 
Iron  and  Steel  Trade  Association, 
191,  229,  et  seq. 

Accidents,  one-half  of  industrial,  are 
preventable,  3;  a  charge  on  pro- 
duction, 6;  and  increased  cost 
of  living,  6;  reduced  by  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  Company,  6,  141; 
reduced  in  plants  of  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  7,  162; 
fine  imposed  on  German  employers 
for,  12;  military  training  of  value 


in  preventing,  26;  weeding  out 
careless  workers  necessary  to  pre- 
vent, 29;  careless  piling  of  ma- 
terial a  cause  of,  42 ;  overcrowding 
of  machines  and  workers  leads  to, 
44;  due  to  "mushroom"  tool- 
heads,  47;  elevator,  63,  320;  on 
presses  and  stamping-machines, 
65,  et  seq.;  lathe,  in  England,  68; 
on  saws,  74-75 ;  on  grinding- wheels, 
76;  defective  illumination  a  cause 
of,  80,  88;  demoralizing  effects 
of,  87;  in  Factories  of  Great 
Britain,  Departmental  Committee 
on,  88;  street-railway,  124,  320, 
328,  353;  in  foundries,  163,  et  seq.; 
in  coal-mines,  167;  to  electrical 
workers,  187,  198;  education  a 
safeguard  against,  189,  351;  prin- 
cipal causes  of,  191,  et  seq.;  fre- 
quency of,  according  to  hours  and 
days  of  the  week,  195;  lit  tie  things 
that  lead  to,  205 ;  cost  of,  per  man 
employed  and  in  relation  to 
length  of  service,  328;  automo- 
bile, 330;  street,  330, 337,  339,  353. 

Acid  vapors,  removal  of,  by  steam 
jet  blowers,  258. 

Aged  employees,  of  Krupp  works, 
colony  for,  381. 

Air,  importance  of  pure,  in  work- 
places, 31,  254,  256;  portable  in- 
strument for  purifying,  282.  See 
also  Ventilation. 

Alcohol,  use  of,  forbidden  to  street- 
railway  employees,  127,  325;  dan- 
gerous to  workers  in  poisons,  253. 

Alcoholism,  overspeeding  and  over- 
straining of  human  machine  leads 
to,  10;  in  foundries,  21-22 ;  rela- 
tion of,  to  accidents,  32-33 ;  meth- 
ods of  combating,  33-34,  387.  39°- 


4io 


SAFETY 


Allgemeine  Elektricitaets  Gesell- 
schaft,  factory  canteen  of,  for  com- 
bating alcoholism  among  workers, 
33 ;  milling-machines  of,  guards  for, 
69 ;  accident  prevention  rules  of,  70 ; 
method  of  safeguarding  switch- 
boards of,  178;  bicycle  ambulance 
of,  287. 

Altenhof ,  colony  for  aged  Krupp  em- 
ployees at,  381. 

Ambulances,  287. 

American  Bridge  Company,  lectures 
on  accident  prevention  before  em- 
ployees of,  25. 

American  Museum  of  Safety,  in- 
dorsement of  recommendations  for 
improved  factory  illumination  by, 
94;  promotion  of  safety  committees 
by,  129;  lectures  given  by,  24-25, 
129,  354,  402 ;  medals  awarded  by, 
141, 403;  inspections  of  plants  and 
works  by,  218,  402 ;  children's  safe- 
ty campaign  of,  351,  et  seq.;  letters 
from  school-children  to,  358 ;  char- 
ter of  incorporation  of,  397;  iron 
and  steel  section  of,  399;  hygiene 
section  of,  399,  403;  a  training- 
school  for  state  factory  inspectors, 
401. 

Amsterdam  Museum  of  Safety,  14, 

395- 
Apprentices,    training    of    foundry, 

293,  et  seq.;  schools  for,  298,  et  seq.; 

engineering,  307,  et  seq.;    training 

of,  in  Germany,  342. 
Apprenticeship  law,  Wisconsin's  new, 

343- 

Ashes,  disposal  of,  at  generating 
station  of  the  New  York  Edison 
Company,  185. 


B 


Bacteria  in  oil  used  on  machines, 
20. 

Badges  and  buttons  for  promoting 
safety,  160,  203,  354. 

Band-saws.     See  Saws. 

Baths,  for  workers  in  poisonous  sub- 
stances, 252,  273. 

Batteries,  for  mine  -  lamps,  disad- 
vantages of  certain  types  of,  90; 
Edison  storage,  91-92. 

Belts,  guards  for,  46,  78,  138,  151; 
dust  from  moving,  47;  elimina- 


tion of,  47;  safety,  for  window- 
cleaners,  57;  for  safety  of  men 
working  on  poles  and  smoke-stacks, 
153- 

Benefit  associations  and  savings- 
funds,  of  value  in  inculcating  cau- 
tion, 200;  for  employees  of  elec- 
tric light  and  power  companies, 
213,  et  seq.;  for  employees  of 
Lever  Brothers,  Limited,  368. 

Berlin  Museum  of  Safety,  14,  396. 

Bismarck,  social  evolution  of  Ger- 
many under,  14. 

Blast-furnaces,  safeguards  for,  146, 
et  seq. 

Board  of  Education,  city  of  New 
York,  co-operation  of,  with  Amer- 
ican Museum  of  Safety,  352-353. 

Boiler-house,  good  illumination  nec- 
essary in,  44. 

Boiler  water-gage,  guard  for,  160. 

Boilers,  safeguards  for,  42,  et  seq., 
153-154;  cleaning  of,  44;  auto- 
matic stokers  for,  185;  under 
sidewalks,  dangerous  practice  of 
installing,  334;  in  the  highway, 

337- 

"Boost  for  Safety"  plan  of  the 
Illinois  Steel  Company,  159. 

Boring-mills,  guards  for,  152. 

Bournville,  an  industrial  community 
held  in  trust,  373,  et  seq. 

Bravado,  a  cause  of  accidents,  195- 
196. 

Breweries  in  the  United  States,  cen- 
sus of,  224. 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company, 
co-operation  of,  in  Children's 
Safety  Crusade,  359-360. 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing 
Company,  safeguarded  catch-ladle 
in  foundry  of,  164-165. 

Buffalo,  Lockport  and  Rochester 
Railway  Company,  examination  of 
employees  of,  in  accident -preven- 
tion rules,  125. 

Building  management,  precautions 
for  safety  in,  331,  et  seq. 

Bumpers,  for  empty  cars  on  sidings, 
54;  for  shop  cranes,  62. 

Bureau  of  Mines,  Federal,  167,  169, 
171. 

Bustle-pipes,  safeguards  for,  147. 

Byllesby  &  Company,  H.  M.,  em- 
ployees' investment  club  of,  216. 


INDEX 


411 


Cadbury,  Edward,  quoted,  26-27; 
Brothers,  Limited,  welfare  work  of, 

372-373- 

Cambria  Steel  Company,  25. 

Cameron,  W.  H.,  his  address  before 
American  Foundrymen's  Asso- 
ciation quoted,  162. 

Canteen,  factory,  for  combating  al- 
coholism, 33. 

Carnegie  Steel  Company,  accident- 
prevention  work  of,  24;  first-aid 
equipment  of,  287. 

Carpenter  shop,  safeguards  for  ma- 
chines in,  152. 

Cars,  safety  for  men  engaged  in  load- 
ing and  unloading,  40,  59-60; 
bumper  and  signal  for  empty,  on 
sidings,  54. 

Cars,  street,  advantages  of  pre- 
payment, 122-123;  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  conductors  and 
motormen  of,  123,  et  seq.;  require- 
ments for  comfort  and  safety  of 
passengers  on,  123;  accidents  in 
connection  with  operation  of,  124, 
320;  examination  of  employees  in 
rules  for  safe  operation  of,  124- 
125,  323-324;  careful  selection 
and  instruction  of  men  for  service 
on,  necessary,  321,  et  seq.;  re- 
sponsibility of  passengers  for  many 
accidents  on,  329-330. 

Caution  to  men  seeking  employment, 
36. 

Charlottenburg  Forest  School  for 
sickly  children,  349,  et  seq. 

Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railway 
Company,  prevention  of  accidents 
by  the,  141. 

Children,  accidents  to,  351,  353. 
See  also  School-children. 

Children's  Aid  Society  of  New 
York,  schools  of,  355. 

Chips,  planer,  protection  against, 
68. 

Chuck,  lathe,  guard  for,  69. 

Cleanliness,  relation  of  illumination 
to,  in  work-places,  81 ;  importance 
of  personal,  to  workers  in  poisons, 
251,  272;  of  workrooms,  a  safe- 
guard against  poisoning,  255-256. 

Cleveland  Electric  Illuminating 
Company,  employees'  fund  of,  214. 


Cleveland  Punch  and  Shear  Works 
Company,  apprenticeship  plan  of, 
294-295. 

Clothing,  unsuitable,  a  cause  of  acci- 
dents, 196;  suitable,  for  workers 
in  poisons,  248;  provisions  for 
changing,  in  factories  where  poi- 
sons are  handled,  249,  272. 

Clubhouse  for  employees  of  Brook- 
lyn Rapid  Transit  Company,  124; 
of  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany, 387 ;  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron 
Company,  387. 

Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company, 

387- 

"  Commandments  for  Safety,"  of  the 
Inland  Steel  Company,  161-162. 

Commissaries,  sanitary  requirements 
of,  in  mining-camps  of  Tennessee 
Coal,  Iron  and  Railway  Company, 
237,  242. 

Committees  of  safety,  promotion  of, 
by  American  Museum  of  Safety, 
129;  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion, 130,  et  seq.;  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  Company,  135,  et  seq.; 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
way Company,  141;  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  141-142;  Amer- 
ican Foundrymen's  Association, 
142-143;  Illinois  Steel  Company, 
155,  et  seq.;  in  mines,  170-171, 
203. 

Committees  on  sanitation,  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  235- 
236;  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and 
Railway  Company,  236,  et  seq. 

Commonwealth  Edison  Company, 
premiums  and  savings  fund  for 
employees  of,  213;  care  of  tuber- 
cular employees  of,  217. 

Compensation,  for  injuries,  average 
payment  in,  5;  for  sickness,  in 
Germany,  7;  cost  of,  contrasted 
with  cost  of  simple  safeguard,  8-9; 
for  ill  health,  relation  of  illumina- 
tion to,  86;  for  nystagmus,  89; 
the  New  York  Edison  Company's 
system  of,  for  injuries  to  em- 
ployees, 188-189;  interest  of  Na- 
tional Metal  Trades  Association 
in,  221 ;  investigation  by  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers  into 
methods  of,  226. 

Congress,    International,    on   Occu- 


412 


SAFETY 


pational  Diseases,  recommenda- 
tion of,  for  adequate  lighting,  88; 
on  Accident  Prevention  and  In- 
dustrial Hygiene,  Milan,  1912, 
208. 

Conservation,  of  national  resources, 
4;  of  human  life,  6,  et  seq.;  of 
health,  16,  et  seq. 

Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Company  of  Baltimore, 
service  annuities  for  employees  of, 
217. 

Continuation  schools.     See  Schools. 

Convalescents,  home  for,  at  Krupp 
works,  382. 

Converters,  brass,  spark-shields  for, 

153- 

Co-operation,  between  capital  and 
labor  in  Germany,  13;  of  em- 
ployees through  suggestions  for 
safety,  36-37,  204;  through  work- 
men's committees,  133-134,  159- 
160. 

Crane  Company,  profit-sharing  plan 
of,  219. 

Crane,  track,  pilot-brush,  and  wire 
fence  for,  60-6 1;  traveling,  safe- 
guards for,  60,  62-63,  J54;  opera- 
tor, provisions  for  safety  of,  61, 
154-155;  gantry,  safeguards  for, 
61,  155;  hook,  safety  rim  for,  62; 
chains  and  slings,  safeguards  for, 
63;  repair-men,  platforms  for, 
148. 

Cupolas,  safeguards  for,  149-150. 

Currie,  Dr.  R.  T-,  Medical  Health 
Officer  for  Chester  (England), 
quoted,  81. 

Cutter-heads,  for  planers,  dangerous 
and  safe  types  of,  73,  152-153. 

Cutting-tools,  safeguards  for,  46, 
67,  et  seq. 


Danger  tariff,  accident  premium  of 
German  employer,  fixed  by,  1 1 . 

Davy  safety  lamp,  disadvantage 
of,  89. 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western 
R.  R.  Co.,  examination  of  em- 
ployees of,  for  physical  fitness  and 
understanding  of  rules  for  acci- 
dent prevention,  126;  safety  de- 
partment of,  127. 


Denver  Gas  and  Electric  Light 
Company,  inspection  of  plants  of, 
by  American  Museum  of  Safety, 
218. 

Dining-rooms.  See  Lunch-rooms  and 
Restaurant. 

Diseases,  obscure,  among  wood- 
workers, 18;  duty  of  employers 
to  prevent  occupational,  19;  of 
foundry  workers,  19,  163;  nystag- 
mus due  to  defective  illumination 
in  mines,  89;  of  workers  on  grind- 
ing-wheels,  276-277;  detection  of, 
by  means  of  medical  examinations 
of  employees,  283,  et  seq.;  venereal, 
among  employees,  285. 

Disinfecting-apparatus  for  mills  and 
shops,  281. 

Dormitories,  for  railroad  employees, 
I27»  387;  for  telephone  operators, 

222. 

Dough-mixer,  safeguards  for,  71-72. 

Dresden,  Museum  of  Safety,  15, 
395;  People's  Theater  at,  392, 
et  seq. 

Dust,  in  wood-working  shops,  elim- 
ination of,  18-19;  from  moving 
belts,  elimination  of,  by  substi- 
tution of  electric  power  for  trans- 
mission shafting,  47;  and  sparks 
from  grinding- wheels,  shield  to 
protect  eyes  against,  78;  in  mines, 
method  of  allaying,  177;  and 
vapors,  removal  of,  at  their  source, 
261;  processes  developing  poi- 
sonous, should  be  inclosed  and 
connected  with  exhaust  system, 
261-262;  gases  and  vapors,  dis- 
posal of,  262,  et  seq.;  in  grinding, 
elimination  of,  262,  275-276;  con- 
trol of  poisonous,  at  factory  of 
National  Lead  Company,  269,  et 
seq. 

Dwellings  for  employees,  at  Port 
Sunlight,  364;  of  Cadbury 
Brothers,  Limited,  373;  at  mines 
of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  and  Coal 
Company,  388. 

E 

Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Com- 
pany of  Brooklyn,  profit-sharing 
plan  of,  213;  of  Boston,  welfare 
bureau  of,  214. 


INDEX 


Edison  electric  safety  lanterns,  91- 
92. 

Education,  in  safety  and  hygiene, 
necessity  of,  8,  16,  247-248;  for 
employees,  the  New  York  Edison 
Company's  system  of,  189-190, 
313,  et  seq.;  resolution  of  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers  with 
regard  to  industrial,  227;  Asso- 
ciation of  the  United  States,  Na- 
tional, 291;  National  Society  for 
Promotion  of  Industrial,  291,  299; 
necessity  of  better  system  of  in- 
dustrial, 292-293,  341;  of  ap- 
prentices, 294,  300,  et  seq.;  pro- 
motion of  industrial,  by  National 
Metal  Trades  Association,  296, 
et  seq.;  for  employees  of  National 
Cash  Register  Company,  306—307 ; 
Wisconsin  State  Board  of  Indus- 
trial, 342;  of  school-children  in 
accident  prevention,  351,  et  seq. 

Efficiency,  wage-earning,  how  con- 
served, 4,  8,  et  seq.;  ample  working- 
space  necessary  for,  45;  relation 
of  illumination  to,  79,  96. 

Electric  Light  Association,  National, 
report  of,  on  factory  illumination, 
98^99;  co-operation  of,  in  formu- 
lating rules  for  resuscitation  from 
electric  shock,  180;  welfare  work, 
211,  et  seq. 

Electric  Railway  Association,  Amer- 
ican, committee  on  education  of, 

313- 

Electric,  arc,  welding  by  means  of, 
1 80;  drive,  advantages  of,  46- 
47;  shock,  resuscitation  from,  180- 
181;  power,  substitution  of,  for 
steam,  336. 

Electrical  apparatus,  safeguards  for, 
178,  et  seq.;  installation  of,  in 
apartment  -  houses  and  office 
buildings,  339~34O- 

Electrical  Engineers,  American  In- 
stitute of,  1 80. 

Elevators,  safeguards  for  freight  and 
passenger,  63-64,  332,  et  seq.; 
accidents  in  connection  with,  320; 
selection  of  responsible  operators 
for,  63,  334. 

Employees'  Association  of  the  New 
York  Edison  Company,  314,  et  seq. 

Engine,  switch,  steps  and  railing 
over  tank  of,  39. 


Engines,  safeguards  for,  154. 

Excavations,  safeguards  for,  59-60, 
338. 

Exhaust-pipes,  safety  provisions  for 
steam,  56-57; — systems,  see  Dust 
and  Ventilation. 

Explosion  of  boiler  under  sidewalk, 

^  335-336. 

Explosives,  mine,  demonstration  of 
permissible,  168;  safety  in  firing, 
172-173. 

Eyes,  protection  for,  against  chips, 
dust,  and  sparks,  and  in  welding, 
68,  78,  1 80;  occupations  espe- 
cially trying  to,  81-82,  86;  and 
teeth  of  school-children,  care  of, 
347-348.  See  Illumination. 


Factory  inspection,  demand  for 
more  thorough,  by  German  Wood 
Workers'  Union,  26. 

Factory  inspectors,  co-operation  of, 
in  solving  problems  of  safety  and 
health,  97-98,  201;  Museum  of 
Safety  a  training-school  for,  401. 

Factory  Investigating  Commission 
of  State  of  New  York,  Committee 
of,  on  lighting  in  factories  and 
workshops,  93-94. 

Fall  of  materials  from  elevations, 
safeguards  against,  41,  58,  149, 
151,  337;  danger  to  pedestrians 
in,  337- 

Falls  on  slippery  streets,  fatalities 
due  to,  339. 

Fatigue,  point  varies,  31;  relation  of 
working  conditions  to,  31-32. 

Feces,  sanitary  removal  of,  in  min- 
ing-camps, 238-239. 

Fire,  brigades,  organization  of 
private,  101,  et  seq.;  drills,  for 
various  industries,  104,  et  seq.; 
alarms,  104,  108,  no,  113,  et  seq.; 
exits,  109,  et  seq. 

Fires,  loss  of  life  due  to,  in  the 
United  States,  106;  in  mines,  169- 
170. 

First  aid,  in  mines,  demonstration 
of,  1 68;  work  and  rescue  stations 
in  mines  of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  and 
Coal  Company,  175-176;  for  the 
employees  of  the  New  York  Edison 
Company,  1 86 ;  and  Rescue  Corps, 


SAFETY 


badges  for  members  of,  203-204; 
equipment  for  workers  exposed  to 
poisons,  247 ;  equipment,  care,  and 
inspection  of,  287;  training  for 
street-railway  employees,  325- 
326. 

Fly-wheels,  safeguards  for,  154. 

Floors,  safety  requirements  for,  42, 
56,  72-73. 

Food,  nourishing,  for  workers  in 
poisons,  253,  273;  for  school- 
children, 348-349,  355.  See  also 
Restaurant. 

Foreign  workers,  warning-signs  for, 
48. 

Foremen,  responsibility  of,  28,  144. 

Foundries,  sanitary  conditions  in 
certain,  20-21;  alcoholism  in,  21- 

22. 

Foundry,  safeguards,  153,  163,  et 
seq.;  workers,  diseases,  and  in- 
juries peculiar  to,  163-164;  ap- 
prentices, training  of,  293,  et  seq. 

Foundrymen's  Association,  Amer- 
ican, 142,  162,  165,  291. 

France,  museums  of  safety  and 
hygiene  in,  396;  committee  to 
study  hygienic  aspects  of  illumina- 
tion, appointed  by  government  of, 
93- 

G 

Garbage,  collection  and  disposal  of, 
in  mining-camps,  239. 

Garden  City  Association  of  Eng- 
land, 376. 

Gardens,  for  children  of  Charlotten- 
burg  Forest  School,  350;  work- 
men's, 366,  389-390- 

Gas-producer  plants,  safeguards  for, 
148. 

Gases,  dusts,  and  vapors,  disposal 
of  poisonous,  262,  et  seq. 

Gears,  guards  for,  46,  71,  146,  150- 

151- 

General  Electric  Company,  and  the 
development  of  Schenectady,  376. 

Germany,  conservation  of  human 
life  in,  4,  7-8;  trade-associations 
of,  prevention  of  accidents  by,  1 1- 
12,  128;  accident  insurance  in, 
beneficial  results  of,  14;  museums 
of  safety  in,  14-15,  395~396;  im- 
portance of  good  illumination  in 
factories,  recognized  in,  92-93. 


Grinding  trades,  mortality  in,  of 
Sheffield,  England,  277. 

Grinding-wheels,  accidents  in  con- 
nection with,  76;  safeguards  for, 
76,  et  seq.,  152,  160-161,  276. 

Grindstones,   artificial,   276-277. 

Grounds  and  premises  about  work- 
ing-place, safety  provisions  for,  40. 

H 

Hatchways,  guard  for,  68. 

Health,  the  second  sphere  of  human 
conservation,  16;  relation  of 
drinking-water  to,  17;  effect  of  il- 
lumination upon,  80-8 1,  85-86; 
of  railway  employees,  promoted 
by  suitable  living  accommoda- 
tions, 127;  •  tubercular  employees 
restored  to,  217-218;  of  telephone 
operators,  provisions  for  main- 
taining, 223;  and  sanitation,  in 
mining-camps  of  Tennessee  Coal, 
Iron  and  Railway  Company,  236, 
et  seq.;  of  workers  in  poisons,  pro- 
visions for  maintaining,  245,  et  seq., 
266,  et  seq.;  of  school-children, 
274,  346,  et  seq.;  importance  of 
medical  departments  in  main- 
taining, 282,  et  seq. 

Helmets  and  respirators  for  work- 
ers in  poisonous  atmospheres,  147, 
250-251,  272. 

Holland,  museum  of  safety  in,  14, 
396;  regulations  for  minimum  il- 
lumination in  factories  of,  82. 

Hooks,  safety,  62,  148. 

Hospital,  car,  of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke 
and  Coal  Company,  176;  at 
Krupp  works,  382. 

Hospitals,  emergency,  176,  287;  co- 
operation of  plant  with  city,  288. 

Hygiene,  education  in,  necessary,  8, 
16;  industrial,  principles  of,  16,  et 
seq.;  Institute  of  Industrial,  Milan, 
93- 

I 

Illinois  Steel  Company,  accident- 
prevention  work  of,  144,  et  seq.; 
safety  committees  of,  155,  et  seq.; 
rules  and  specifications  of,  for 
safety,  156-157. 

Illuminants,  "glare"  of,  necessity  of 
minimizing,  84,  85. 


INDEX 


Illuminating  Engineering,  Society, 
84,  93-94;  laboratories,  96. 

Illumination,  of  floors  and  stairways, 
42,  88;  of  boiler-houses,  44;  of 
lathe-bed,  71;  of  wood- working 
and  other  dangerous  machines, 
72,  87;  adequate,  economic  im- 
portance of,  79-80,  86-87,  96,  et 
seq.;  legislation  for  improved,  in 
factories,  80,  82,  93-94;  defective, 
a  cause  of  accidents,  80,  86,  et  seq.; 
relation  of,  to  tuberculosis,  81; 
some  evils  induced  by  want  of,  81 ; 
adequate,  especially  necessary  in 
certain  trades,  81-82,  85-86;  H.  M. 
Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  in 
Great  Britain  on,  quoted,  82-83; 
photometric  measurements  to  se- 
cure adequate  amount  of,  83-84; 
exhaustive  report  on  factory,  by 
Mr.  L.  B.  Marks,  84;  spoilage  and 
waste  due  to  defective,  87,  99;  in 
mines,  88,  et  seq.;  Department 
Committee  on  Accidents  in  Fac- 
tories in  Great  Britain  on,  88,  92 ; 
Dr.  Thomas  Oliver  on  factory, 
quoted,  92;  committee  appointed 
by  French  Government  to  study 
hygienic  aspects  of,  93;  of  iron 
and  steel  plants,  95-96;  co-opera- 
tion of  factory  inspectors  in  solv- 
ing problems  of,  97-98;  scientific 
factory,  report  of  National  Elec- 
tric Light  Association  on,  98-99. 

Industrial  education.  See  Educa- 
tion. 

Injuries,  average  compensation  for, 
5;  prompt  treatment  of,  186-187, 
283,  286-287.  See  also  Accidents 
and  First  Aid. 

Inland  Steel  Company,  safeguards 
for  elevators  of,  63-6 J.;  "Com- 
mandments for  Safety,  of,  161- 
162. 

Inspectors.  See  Factory  inspectors 
and  Committees  of  safety. 

Insurance,  accident,  in  Germany, 
Dr.  Kaufmann  on,  quoted,  13-14; 
workmen's,  funds  for,  at  Krupp 
works,  382-383.  See  also  Com- 
pensation, Pensions,  and  Savings 
Funds. 

Intoxicants.     See  Alcohol. 

Investment  funds  for  employees. 
See  Savings  Funds. 


Iron  and  steel  plants,  lectures  of 
American  Museum  of  Safety  under 
auspices  of,  24-25 ;  illumination  of, 
95-96;  safety  committees  of,  130, 
et  seq.,  155,  et  seq. 

Iron  and  Steel  Trade  Association, 
North  German,  accident  report  of, 
191,  230-231. 


Japan,  sanitary  measures  of,  in 
Russo-Japanese  War,  6. 

Jointer,  wood,  guards  for,  73,  152. 

Jones  &  Laughlin  Steel  Company, 
lectures  at  plants  of,  25. 

Judicial  department  for  considera- 
tion of  accident  cases,  cost  of 
maintaining,  to  taxpayers  of  New 
York  City,  4-5. 

K 

Kaufmann,  Dr.,  President  Imperial 
Insurance  Department  of  Ger- 
many, quoted,  13-14. 

Kirchhoff,  Charles,  chairman  Iron 
and  Steel  Section,  American  Mu- 
seum of  Safety,  24,  399. 

Knives,  chopping  and  mixing,  guards 
for,  71-72. 

Koerting  and  Mathiesen,  of  Leipsig, 
vacation  home  for  employees  of, 
391-392. 

Krupp,  works,  welfare  of  employees 
of,  377;  memorial,  382. 


La  Belle  Iron  Works,  lectures  under 
auspices  of,  25. 

Labor,  unions,  overcoming  antag- 
onism of,  24;  Festival  of  France, 
206;  state  departments  of,  Mu- 
seum of  Safety  of  assistance  to, 
401. 

Lackawanna  Steel  Company,  lec- 
tures under  auspices  of,  25. 

Ladders,  safeguards  for,  58.  See  also 
Platforms. 

Ladles,  safety  hooks  for,  148;  foun- 
dry, safeguards  for,  153,  164-165. 

Lamps,  mine,  89,  et  seq.;  portable 
electric,  guards  for,  179. 

Larry -operator,  protection  for,  174- 
175- 


4i6 


SAFETY 


Lathes,  accidents  on,  in  England, 
68;  safeguards  for,  69,  et  seq.,  151. 

Lead  manufacture,  dangers  of,  266- 
267. 

Lead  poisoning,  relation  of  illumi- 
nation to,  80;  use  of  milk  recom- 
mended in  prevention  of,  254; 
substitution  of  safer  processes  for 
prevention  of,  255;  methods  and 
safeguards  employed  by  National 
Lead  Company  to  prevent,  268, 
et  seq. 

Lectures.     See  Accident  Prevention. 

Lever  Brothers,  Limited,  welfare 
work  of,  363,  et  seq.;  Sir  William 
H.  Lever,  on  partnership  plan  of, 
quoted,  368-369. 

Liability,  accident,  present  system 
of,  wasteful,  5. 

Lighting.     See  Illumination. 

Litigation,  accident,  cost  of,  5-6. 

Llewellyn,  Dr.,  on  miners'  nystag- 
mus, quoted,  89. 

Lockers,  individual,  for  employees, 
223,  249,  272,  282. 

Log-book,  a  safeguard  for  workers  on 
high-tension  apparatus,  184. 

Lunch-rooms  for  workers  in  poison- 
ous substances,  252,  272.  See  also 
Restaurant. 

M 

Machinery,  dangerous  parts  of, 
painted  red  in  European  shops,  48 ; 
dangerous  practice  of  cleaning  and 
oiling,  while  in  motion,  197. 

Malnutrition  of  school-children,  348. 

Manholes,  and  hatchways,  guards 
for,  53-54,  338-339;  worn  covers 
of,  dangerous  to  pedestrians,  339. 

Manual-training  courses  in  public 
schools,  344-345. 

Manufacturers,  National  Associa- 
tion of,  accident-prevention  work 
of,  225-226;  principles  of  indus- 
trial education  indorsed  by,  227. 

Marks,  L.  B.,  report  of,  on  factory 
lighting,  84. 

Materials,  orderly  arrangement  of, 
42;  carelessly  left  lying  around, 
danger  in,  58. 

McCrea,  James,  on  accident  pre- 
vention, quoted,  140-141. 

Mechanics,  scarcity  of  skilled,  30, 
274.  293. 


Medals,  for  accident  prevention, 
promotion  of  hygiene  and  welfare 
of  workers,  of  American  Museum 
of  Safety,  141,  403-404;  of  Labor 
Festival  of  France,  206-207. 

Medical,  departments  for  examina- 
tion and  treatment  of  employees, 
1 86,  223,  282,  et  seq.;  examina- 
tions of  workers  exposed  to 
poisons,  245,  247,  273. 

Metal  Trades  Association,  National, 
profit-sharing  plans  of  member 
companies  of,  219-220;  accident- 
prevention  work  of,  220-22 1 ;  pro- 
motion of  industrial  education  by, 
296,  et  seq. 

Metropolitan  Engineering  Company, 
340. 

Midvale  Steel  Company,  "feeder" 
in  use  by,  for  planing  small  pieces 
of  wood,  73. 

Milan,  Institute  of  Industrial  Hy- 
giene, 93;  Museum  of  Safety,  395. 

Milk,  _  safeguarding  purity  of,  in 
mining-camps  of  Tennessee  Coal, 
Iron  and  Railway  Company,  242; 
use  of,  in  prevention  of  lead 
poisoning,  253-254,  275;  fur- 
nished to  school-children,  355. 

Milling-machines,  guards  for,  69-70. 

Milwaukee  Electric  •  Railway  and 
Light  Company,  welfare  work  of, 
216. 

Mine,  torch,  danger  in  open-flame, 
89;  lamps,  89,  et  seq.;  Safety 
Demonstration,  National,  167- 
168;  fires,  causes  of,  169-170; 
timbering,  systematic,  172;  ex- 
plosives, safety  in  use  of,  172-173; 
cage,  safeguards  for,  173;  shaft, 
safeguards  for,  173-174;  cars,  au- 
tomatic device  for  uncoupling, 
174;  lamp-house  and  checking 
system,  174;  offices,  haulage-en- 
gine rooms,  pump-rooms,  and 
stables,  fireproof  construction  of, 
175;  ventilation,  177. 

Mines,  Federal  Bureau  of,  167,  169, 
171;  first-aid  work  and  rescue 
stations  in,  168,  175-176. 

Mining-camps  of  Tennessee  Coal, 
Iron  and  Railway  Company,  san- 
itary conditions  in,  236,  et  seq. 

Mortality  in  grinding  trades,  Shef- 
field, England,  277. 


INDEX 


417 


Mosquitoes,  requirements  for  elim- 
ination of,  in  mining-camps  of 
Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Railway 
Company,  243. 

Motor,  for  lathe,  mounted  on  wall, 
70-71;  for  cross-cut  metal  saw, 
method  of  mounting,  7 l »  room 
of  steel  mill,  150. 

Motormen  and  conductors  of  street- 
cars, selection  and  training  of,  321, 
et  seq. 

Mud-gun  of  blast-furnace,  safe- 
guard for,  147. 

Murray,  Thomas  E.,  on  safe  elec- 
trical installation,  quoted,  340. 

Museum  of  Safety,  Amsterdam,  14, 
396;  Berlin,  14,  396;  Dresden,  15, 
395;  Munich,  15, 395;  American,  16, 
24,  94,  129,  141,  351,  et  seq.,  397, 
et  seq. 

Museum  of  Traffic  and  Construction, 
Royal,  in  Berlin,  391. 

Museums  of  safety,  industrial  value 
of,  16,  18,  23,  395,  et  seq. 

N 

National  Cash  Register  Company, 
practice  of,  to  disinfect  oil  used 
on  machinery,  20;  prizes  awarded 
employees  of,  for  safety  sugges- 
tions, 204;  educational  courses 
for  employees  of,  306-307. 

National  Fire  Protection  Associa- 
tion, on  total  annual  loss  of  life 
in  United  States  due  to  fires, 
quoted,  106. 

National  Lead  Company,  safe  and 
sanitary  manufacturing  process  of, 
268,  et  seq. 

National  Tube  Company,  pure  drink- 
ing-water system  of,  17,  277,  et 
seq.;  lectures  under  auspices  of ,  25 ; 
guards  for  lathes  at  plants  of, 
69,  70-71;  warning -signs  at  en- 
trances to  plants  of,  145-146; 
guard  for  circular  saws  in  use  by, 
152;  emergency  stretcher  de- 
vised by,  287. 

Negligence,  cases,  economic  waste 
in  litigation  connected  with,  4-5; 
"contributory,"  defective  illumi- 
nation considered  as,  86-87. 

New  York  Central  Railroad,  acci- 
dent prevention  on  the  lines  of  the, 


141-142 ;  school  for  apprentices  of, 
310,  et  seq. 

New  York  Edison  Company,  acci- 
dent prevention  and  welfare  work 
of  the,  182,  et  seq.;  treatment  of 
injured  employees,  of,  186-187; 
compensation  'for  injuries  to  em- 
ployees of,  188-189;  educational 
courses  for  employees  of,  189-190, 
313,  et  seq.;  service  annuities  for 
employees  of,  213. 

New  York  School  Lunch  Committee, 
work  of,  in  furnishing  nourishing 
food  for  school  -  children,  348- 

349- 

North  German  Iron  and  Steel  Trade 
Association.  See  Iron  and  Steel 
Trade  Association. 

Norton  Company,  medical  depart- 
ment of  the,  283-284. 

Nystagmus,  an  occupational  disease 
due  to  defective  illumination  in 
mines,  89. 


O 


Occupational  diseases.    See  Diseases. 

Occupations,  in  Germany,  divided 
into  danger  classes,  II. 

Oil,  infected,  cause  of  blood  poison- 
ing, 20. 

Oliver,  Dr.  Thomas,  on  factory 
lighting,  quoted,  92-93. 

Open-air  classes  for  anemic  and 
tubercular  children,  349,  et  seq. 

Open-hearth  furnaces,  safeguards 
for,  148-149. 

Ordinances  for  safety,  in  connection 
with  street  traffic,  330-331. 

Ore,  safeguards  for  men  poking  down 
or  trimming  piles  of,  59;  un- 
loaders  at  docks,  safeguards  for, 

145- 

Oxygen  apparatus  for  workers,  in 
blast-furnaces  and  gas  -  engine 
plants,  147;  in  mines,  176;  in 
poisonous  atmospheres,  247,  251. 


Partnership  plan  for  employees  of 
Lever  Brothers,  Limited,  368,  et 
seq. 

Passageways  and  gangways,  safety 
in  wide  and  unobstructed,  8. 


418 


SAFETY 


300, 

Yor 


Pedestrians  in  city  streets,  accidents 
to,  319-320,  337,  339,  353- 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  accidents  re- 
duced by,  6,  141;  lectures  under 
auspices  of,  25;  safety  committees 
of,  135,  et  seq.;  award  of  gold 
medal  for  accident  prevention  to, 
by  American  Museum  of  Safety, 
141 ;  school  for  apprentices  of, 
),  et  seq.;  clubhouse  at  New 
rork  terminal  for  employees  of, 

387- 

Pennsylvania  Steel  Company,  lec- 
tures under  auspices  of,  25. 

Pensions  for  employees,  of  Common- 
wealth Edison  Company,  213;  of 
the  New  York  Edison  Company, 
213;  of  Philadelphia  Electric 
Company,  214;  of  Milwaukee 
Electric  Railway  and  Light  Com- 
pany, 216;  of  Consolidated  Gas, 
Electric  Light  and  Power  Com- 
pany of  Baltimore,  217;  of  West- 
ern Union  Telegraph  and  allied 
telephone  companies,  223;  of 
Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Com- 
pany, 329. 

Philadelphia  Electric  Company's 
Beneficial  Association  for  em- 
ployees, 214. 

Philadelphia    Rapid    Transit    Com- 

Eany,  insurance  and  pension  fund 
}r  employees  of,  329. 

Physical  defects  of  school-children, 
274-275,  347-34.8. 

Physical  examination  of  employees, 
to  determine  fitness  for  work  and 
to  detect  early  symptoms  of 
disease,  245,  247,  273,  283,  et  seq., 
321. 

Physical  fitness  of  workers  for  occu- 
pations selected  or  tasks  assigned 
to  them,  importance  of  consider- 
ing, 28,  32,  198-199,  245-246. 

Physical  training  for  school-children, 
necessity  of,  in  preparation  for  in- 
dustrial life,  346. 

Planers,  safeguards  for,  68,  73,  151- 
152. 

Platforms,  safety  requirements  for, 
41,  55-56;  and  steps,  for  crane 
operators,  61,  149;  of  street-cars, 
problems  of,  122,  329;  and  railed 
walks,  for  blast-furnaces,  146; 
and  stairs,  for  gas-washing  ap- 


paratus, 148;  for  crane-repairmen, 
148;  for  larry -operators,  174-175. 

Playgrounds,  accidents  to  children 
on  city  streets  largely  due  to  lack 
°f,  3535  f°r  children  of  employees 
of  Krupp  works,  378. 

Poisoning,  blood,  due  to  infected 
machine-oil,  20;  good  illumina- 
tion especially  necessary  in  trades 
where  there  is  possibility  of,  81; 
medical  examination  of  workers  a 
safeguard  against  industrial,  245, 
247,  273;  change  of  work  helpful 
in  preventing,  246 ;  suitable  cloth- 
ing for  workers  a  protective  mea- 
sure against,  248-249;  provision 
of  changing-rooms,  washrooms,  and 
separate  dining-rooms  in  factories 
dealing  with  poisons,  necessary  to 
prevent,  249,  252-253,  272;  sub- 
stitution of  safe  processes  for  those 
subjecting  workers  to  danger  of, 
254-255.  See  also  Respirators  and 
Ventilation. 

Port  Sunlight,  a  model  industrial 
community,  363,  et  seq. 

Presses,  accidents  on,  65,  et  seq.; 
safeguards  for,  67,  68. 

Profit-sharing  with  employees,  of 
member  companies  of  National 
Electric  Light  Association,  213- 
214;  of  member  companies  of 
National  Metal  Trades  Associa- 
tion, 219-220. 

Public  Service,  Commission,  First 
District,  State  of  New  York,  re- 
port of,  on  street-railway  acci- 
dents, 320;  Railway  Company  of 
New  Jersey,  accident  records  of 
employees  of,  328. 

Purchasing-agent  an  important  fac- 
tor of  safety,  202-203. 


Railings,  in  front  of  buildings  close 
to  tracks,  37,  155;  for  platforms 
and  scaffolds,  41,  55;  for  stair- 
ways, 42;  for  runways  and  walks 
in  boiler-house,  43,  153;  safety 
requirements  for,  56;  for  walks 
along  trestles,  146. 

Recess,  afternoon,  importance  of,  in 
maintaining  health  of  workers, 
31-32. 


INDEX 


419 


Recklessness,  of  workers,  accidents 
due  to,  192-193;  of  street-car 
passengers,  accidents  due  to,  329- 
330.  . 

Recreation  for  employees,  provi- 
sions made  by  employers  for,  127, 
366-367,  372,  380-381,  387,  et  seq., 

392- 

Red  Cross,  American,  participation 
of,  in  National  Mine  Safety  Dem- 
onstration, 167. 

Republic  Iron  and  Steel  Company, 
lectures  under  auspices  of,  25. 

Rescue  stations  and  apparatus  at 
mines  of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  and 
Coal  Company,  175-176. 

Respirators  for  workers  in  poisonous 
atmospheres,  250-251,  272.  See 
also  Oxygen  Apparatus. 

Restaurant,  for  employees,  207,  279, 
et  seq.,  379,  386.  See  also  Lunch- 
rooms. 

Rest,  rooms  for  telephone-operators, 
222-223;  houses  for  railway  em- 
ployees, 386-387. 

Resuscitation  from  electric  shock, 
rules  for,  181;  instruction  of 
electrical  workers  in,  186. 

Risks,  relation  of,  to  accident  pre- 
miums, 12;  folly  of  workers  in  tak- 
ing, 196. 

Roadways,  good,  tend  to  minimize 
accidents,  41,  145. 

Rolling-mills,  safety  provisions  for, 
150-151. 

Roofs,  danger  in  loose  material  left 
lying  on,  58. 

Royal  Society  of  Arts,  London,  in- 
terest of,  in  factory  lighting,  89, 
92. 

Rules  for  safety,  purpose  and  value 
of,  27;  plan  of  Efficiency  Sugges- 
tion Society  to  reinforce,  29-30; 
in  operation  of  milling-machines 
and  saws,  70;  examination  of  em- 
ployees in,  124,  126,  160,  325;  of 
Illinois  Steel  Company,  published 
in  various  languages  of  employees, 
156;  of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  and  Coal 
Company,  173;  of  New  York  Edi- 
son Company,  signed  by  em- 
ployees, 185;  standardization  of, 
20 1 ;  of  workers  in  lead -factory, 
272-273;  for  street-car  employees, 
324- 
28 


Safeguards,  slight  cost  of,  compared 
with  compensation  for  injuries, 
8-9;  overcoming  unwillingness  of 
workers  to  use,  12,  25-26,  28-29, 
36,  159-160;  failure  of  employers 
to  provide,  12,  65-66,  193-194; 
standardization  of,  134,  200-201. 

Safety,  committees,  see  Committee 
of  Safety;  economic  value  of,  in 
industry,  8-9;  encouraging  sug- 
gestions for,  from  employees,  36, 
159-160,  204;  specifications  for, 
156;  League  of  school-children, 
354;  Day,  in  schools  of  New  York 
City,  358-359. 

Saloon,  attraction  of,  for  workmen, 
33-34;  substitutes  for,  34,  127, 
366-367,  375,  387,  389-390. 

Sanitary  committees.  See  Com- 
mittees on  Sanitation. 

Sanitary  conditions,  relation  of,  to 
output  of  plant,  17-18,  235-254; 
in  foundries,  20-21;  'in  work- 
places where  poisons  are  encoun- 
tered, 255,  et  seq. 

Savings-funds  for  employees,  200, 
213,  et  seq.,  368,  et  seq. 

Saws,  cross-cut  metal,  guards  for, 
71;  band,  guards  for,  74,  152;  ac- 
cidents on,  74-75 ;  circular,  guards 
for,  75,  152;  cross-cut,  guard  for, 
75;  swing,  guards  for,  75. 

Scaffolds,  safety  provisions  for,  55- 
56,  337- 

School-children,  physical  defects  of, 
274-275,  347;  physical  training 
for,  346 ;  care  of  eyes  and  teeth  of, 
347-348 ;  nourishing  food  for,  348, 
355;  education  of,  in  accident 
prevention,  351,  et  seq.;  safety 
leaflets  for,  354;  letters  from  mem- 
bers of  Safety  League  of,  357- 
358. 

Schools,  for  employees  of  New  York 
Edison  Company,  189-190,  313, 
et  seq.;  for  telephone-operators, 
223;  Corporation,  National  As- 
sociation of,  228-229;  for  appren- 
tices, 298,  300,  et  seq.;  trade,  299- 
300,  344;  continuation,  299,  343- 
344;  part-time,  344;  vocational, 
344-345;  agricultural,  345~346; 
open-air,  349,  et  seq.;  of  Children's 


420 


SAFETY 


Aid  Society  of  New  York  City, 

355- 

Screws,  set,  substitution  of  hollow 
for  projecting,  69. 

Sheet  and  Tin  Plate  Company, 
American,  restaurant  for  em- 
ployees at  Gary  works  of,  279, 
et  seq. 

Sheet-mills,  safeguards  for,  151. 

Shields  for  protection  of  eyes,  against 
flying  chips,  68;  against  dust  and 
sparks  from  grinding- wheels,  78. 

Shoes  for  foundry  workers,  153,  165. 

Sickness,  compensation  for,  in  Ger- 
many, 7;  loss  in  wage-earning 
efficiency  due  to,  in  the  United 
States,  8;  and  disability  of  em- 
ployees, funds  for,  188,  213,  et  seq., 
223,  382-383. 

Signs,  "To  Men  Seeking  Employ- 
ment," 36;  illuminated,  at  en- 
trances to  works,  36,  145-146; 
warning,  at  shop  exits  near  tracks, 
37;  universal  warning,  48;  warn- 
ing, showing,  "no  clearance"  at 
sides  of  cars  being  unloaded,  60; 
warning,  for  elevators,  64;  danger, 
for  protection  of  men  working  on 
machinery  against  accidental  turn- 
ing on  of  power,  1 50—1 5 1 . 

Smoke-stacks,  safety  belts  for  men 
working  on,  153. 

Speeding  of  machinery,  a  common 
cause  of  accidents,  196. 

Spinning-frames,  importance  of  al- 
lowing ample  space  between,  45- 
46. 

Splints,  improvised,  for  treatment 
of  injured,  in  street-railway  acci- 
dents, 326. 

Spoilage  in  manufactures  due  to  de- 
fective illumination,  81,  96,  99. 

Sprinklers,  automatic,  regular  in- 
spections of,  1 20. 

Stairways,  safety  requirements  for, 
42-43,  56,  61,  88,  109,  120. 

Stimulants,  desire  for,  due  to  over- 
straining and  overspeeding  of  hu- 
man machine,  10. 

Stoker,  automatic,  as  safety  device, 
185. 

Stone  &  Webster,  welfare  work  for 

employees  of,  215-216. 
Storage  batteries  for  mine-lamps,  90- 
91. 


Street,  accidents,  319-320,  330,  337, 
339,  353;  obstructions,  danger  to 
pedestrians  in,  337-338.  See  also 
Ordinances. 

Street-railways,  employees  of,  selec- 
tion and  training  of,  123,  et  seq., 
321,  et  seq.;  examination  of  em- 
ployees of,  in  rules  for  safety,  124, 
126,  323-324;  accidents  on,  124, 
320,  328,  330;  chances  for  promo- 
tion of  employees  of,  327-328. 
See  also  Accidents  and  Cars. 

Stretchers,  emergency,  286-287. 

Subways,  under  tracks  and  danger- 
ous machines,  38;  150.  See  also 
Viaducts. 

Suggestion-boxes  for  employees,  36. 

Superintendents,  responsibility  of,  in 

greventing  accidents,  144;  rules 
}r,  156.  See  also  Foremen. 

Swine,  elimination  of,  in  mining- 
camps,  243. 

Switch,  simple  safeguard  for  frog  of, 
39;  throws,  dangerous  and  safe 
types  of,  39-40;  house,  for  con- 
trol switches,  178;  boards,  safe- 
guards for,  178-179;  safeguard 
for  knife,  179;  precautions  for 
safety  of  operator  working  on  high- 
tension,  183-184. 


Taxpayers  of  New  York  City,  cost 
of  accident  litigation  to,  5-6. 

Telephone-operators,  provisions  for 
health  and  comfort  of,  222,  et  seq.; 
school  for,  223. 

Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Railway 
Company,  sanitary  work  of,  236, 
et  seq. 

Textile  machinery,  danger  to  oper- 
ators in  crowding,  45,  197. 

Theater,  open-air,  at  Port  Sunlight, 
367;  People's,  at  Dresden,  392, 
et  seq. 

Tobacco,  smoking  and  chewing  of, 
prohibited  in  factories  where  poi- 
sonous materials  are  handled,  251, 

273- 

Toe-boards  for  platforms  and  walks, 
4i»  43,  55-56,  58,  146,  149. 

Tools,  defective,  inspection  neces- 
sary to  prevent  injuries  from,  47; 


INDEX 


421 


should  never  be  left  lying  around, 
58. 

Tracks,  provisions  for  safe  passage 
across,  37-38,  145;  safeguards  for 
exits  close  to,  37,  148,  155;  safety 
gates  for,  38,  53;  signals  for  pro- 
tection of  men  working  on,  39,  59. 
See  also  Switches  and  Yards. 

Trade  associations  of  Germany,  in- 
fluence of,  in  preventing  accidents, 
11-12,  128-129,  229,  et  seq. 

Trained  workers,  demand  for,  227, 
274-275,  292-293,  296,  et  seq.,  342. 

Travelers  Insurance  Company,  gold 
medal  of,  for  award  by  American 
Museum  of  Safety,  141,  404; 
study  visit  of  inspectors  of,  at 
American  Museum  of  Safety,  401. 

Trestle,  safeguards  for,  146. 

Tuberculosis,  relation  of  illumina- 
tion to,  8 1 ;  care  of  employees  suf- 
fering from,  217-218,  382;  exam- 
ination of  employees  to  detect,  223, 
283;  due  to  grinding-dust,  277; 
open-air  schools  for  children  suf- 
fering from,  349,  et  seq. 

Typhoid  fever,  treatment  of,  in 
mining-camps  of  Tennessee  Coal, 
Iron  and  Railway  Company,  243- 
244. 

U 

United  States  Brewers'  Association, 
welfare  work  of,  224-225. 

United  States  Steel  Corporation,  re- 
lief for  accidents  to  employees  of, 
7;  accidents  reduced  in  plants  of, 
7,  162;  universal  danger  -  sign 
adopted  by,  48;  safety  require- 
ments of,  for  platforms  and  rail- 
ings. 55-56;  committee  of  safety 
of,  130,  et  seq.;  standardization  of 
safeguards  by,  134;  committee  on 
sanitation  of,  235-236. 

University,  shops,  lack  of  safeguards 
for  machines  in,  26;  of  Cincinnati, 
practical  technical  courses  for 
students  at,  297,  299. 

Unloaders,  ore,  safeguards  for,  145. 


Vacation  home  for  employees,  392. 

Van  Brunt,  late  Justice,  on  time  of 

courts  taken  up  with  considera- 


tion of  accidents  cases,  quoted,  4- 

5- 

Vapors  and  gases,  poisonous,  meth- 
ods of  removing  and  disposing  of, 
258,  260,  et  seq. 

Ventilation,  importance  of  good,  in 
work-places,  16,  20-21,  31,  78,  256, 
282;  in  mines,  175,  177;  in  fac- 
tories where  poisons  are  handled, 
257,  et  seq.;  269,  et  seq.;  in  grind- 
ing-rooms,  276-277. 

Viaducts,  over  tracks,  37,  145;  over 
tables,  in  rolling-mills,  150.  See 
also  Subways. 

Vision,  defective,  due  to  defective 
illumination,  83,  89;  of  school- 
children, 274,  347. 

Vohr  Ozone  Maker,  a  portable 
instrument  for  purifying  air  of 
work-places,  282. 

W 

Walks,  railed,  in  boiler-house,  43-44, 
153;  for  window-cleaners,  57-58; 
for  ore  -  unloaders,  145;  along 
trestles,  146;  for  blast-furnaces, 
146;  for  crane-operator,  149. 

Wanamaker  stores,  medical  depart- 
ment of,  285-286. 

Wash-bowls,  individual,  252,  281. 

Washing  facilities  for  workers  in 
factories  where  poisons  are 
handled,  249,  252-253,  272. 

Water,  drinking,  for  employees, 
economy  of  providing  pure,  17; 
system  of  National  Tube  Com- 
pany, 17,  277,  et  seq.;  safeguard- 
ing purity  of,  in  mining-camps 
of  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Rail- 
way Company,  239,  et  seq. 

Water-closets,  in  mining-camps,  238; 
in  pipe-mills,  281. 

Welding  by  means  of  electric  arc, 
protection  in,  180. 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 
and  allied  telephone  companies, 
welfare  work  for  employees  of, 
223-224. 

Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manu- 
facturing Company  and  Westing- 
house  Machine  Company,  courses 
for  apprentices  of,  307,  et  seq. 

Wheeling  Steel  and  Iron  Company, 
lectures  under  auspices  of ,  25. 


422 


SAFETY 


Whitaker-Glessner  Company,  lec- 
tures under  auspices  of,  25. 

Williams,  Arthur,  on  safety  features 
of  electric  drive,  quoted,  47. 

Windows,  in  factories,  importance 
of  making  ample  allowance  for, 
49;  provisions  for  safety  in  clean- 
ing, 57-58. 

Winona  Technical  Institute,  of  In- 
dianapolis, industrial  education  at, 
296-297. 

Winter  months,  frequency  of  acci- 
dents during,  87. 

Wire-drawing  blocks,  safeguards  for, 
1 60. 

Wisconsin,  State  Board  of  Industrial 
Education,  342;  new  apprentice- 
ship law  of,  343. 

Women  workers,  seats  for,  31;  dan- 
ger to,  on  crowded  textile  ma- 
chines, 45,  197;  accidents  to,  on 
presses  and  stamping-machines, 
65-66;  recklessness  of,  67;  suit- 
able clothing  for,  196. 

Woodman,  Dr.  John,  his  First  Aid 
to  the  Injured  cited,  186. 

Woodworkers,  obscure  diseases  of, 
due  to  wood  dusts,  18;  German 
Union  of,  activity  of,  in  accident 
prevention,  25-26. 


Wood-working  machines,  safeguards 
for,  18,  72,  et  seq.,  152. 

Workmen's  insurance,  in  Germany, 
Dr.  Kaufmann  on  excellent  results 
of,  quoted,  13-14;  funds  for,  at 
Krupp  works,  382-383.  See  also 
Compensation. 


Yards,  railings  before  exits  into  busy, 

37,  J55;  viaducts  across  train,  37- 

38,  145;     steam    vent    pipes    in, 
38, 41 ;  value  of  good  roadways  in, 
41,  145;    safeguards  for  openings 
in,   53-54;   open  passageways  in, 
58 ;  disposition  of  scrap  in,  58-59. 
See  also  Tracks. 

Youngstown  Sheet  and  Tube  Com- 
pany, and  Youngstown  Steel 
Company,  lectures  under  aus- 
pices of,  25. 


Zacher,  Dr.,  director  of  German 
Imperial  Bureau  of  Statistics,  on 
conservation  of  wage-earning  effi- 
ciency, quoted,  4. 


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